(1975). Boston School Committee "Student Desegregation Plan." A Response. The initial black community response to the desegregation plan submitted by the School Department is contained in this document. The principal purpose is to make clear to the court that in evaluating this plan, or any other, improvements in the quality of schooling is sought. Efforts to rid the Boston schools of discriminatory pupil placement are supported, but racial balances or any rigid formulas for fixing the racial proportions in school buildings are not sought. It is believed that once discriminatory pupil placement is ended, probable instructional outcome should chiefly determine the character of all schools. The court is asked to verify the accuracy of the statistical data in the plan, to verify school department capacity and intent to implement the options that are essential to the plan, and to require procedures designed to prevent a variety of abuses that often attend desegregation. The procedures include: certification for, and placement in, special education classes;…

Furno, Orlando F.; Kidd, J.S. (1974). New Teachers for the Inner City. This book is primarily about the problems of preparing teachers for assignments to schools in low-income neighborhoods and is based on an extensive case study of a specific attempt to deal with these problems. Chapter 1 introduces some basic issues in the training of teachers for assignment to schools in low-income neighborhoods. Chapter 2 explores "The Setting for the Urban Poor." Chapter 3 reviews the conceptual approaches to education and teacher training, briefly surveys the history of teacher preparation in the U.S., looks at current developments at the operational level, and evaluates prospects for reform within the system of teacher education. Chapters 4-7 deal with the planning, implementation, central operations, and evaluation of the Baltimore Teacher Training Project. Chapter 8 is a critical review of the state-of-the-art with respect to selecting and training teachers for work with the economically disadvantaged. The objective is to integrate the empirical…

Kirst, Michael W. (1973). Issues in Governance for Performance-Based Teacher Education. PBTE Series No. 13. The evolution and governing structure for teacher education and certification provide the context for analyzing the probable impact and issues caused by the implementation of performance-based teacher education (PBTE). Because the concept of PBTE is still being refined, such an analysis must be of a prescriptive and speculative nature. However, several factors which will have an effect on crucial governance issues can be identified: a) universities and state governments have had the most influence on educational policy to date; b) since the current system was institutionalized, teacher organizations, parent groups, ethnic minorities, students, and state legislators have gained in strength and will demand a larger share of the influence on educational policy; c) these varying interest groups have different value perspectives which the research base of PBTE is unlikely to resolve, with the result that value issues will become intensely political, engendering negotiations, coalitions,… [PDF]

Taines, Beatrice (1973). First Semester of the Diablo Valley College Women's Re-Entry Program, Fall 1972, and a Program for Women at Diablo Valley College. In the fall semester, 1972, a Women's Re-entry Program was initiated at Diablo Valley College. The program was devised to provide a supportive and encouraging atmosphere and convenient physical arrangements so that women could return to the classroom. All classes were scheduled during elementary school hours, and child care was made available for preschool children. The program consisted of two blocks of basic general education courses in which a total of 79 students enrolled. At the end of the semester, students wrote informal essays evaluating their experiences. Every student expressed approval, usually enthusiasm, and no one stated that she regretted entering the program or totally disliked any single course. Three colloquies and a lecture series and seminar were available as special electives. At the end of the semester a statistical analysis was made of the students' backgrounds, reasons for enrolling, scholastic achievement at Diablo, and retention rate. The Women's Studies… [PDF]

Hawley, Peggy (1975). The State of the Art of Counseling High School Girls. Final Report. Fels Discussion Paper No. 89. A year spent in fulltime study of over 3,000 young women and counselors of both sexes in 13 schools shows that both groups have largely discarded the traditional stereotype of womanhood. Attitudes were measured on a continuum from dichotomous (gender-based) to androgynous (no sex referent). Counselors were significantly more androgynous than the girls they counsel. Self-report statements indicate that counselors are relatively more free of sex bias than their counselees. This tells more about what they say than about what they do. Girls miss the more subtle basic implications of feminism. Many think that women should work only if it doesn't interfere with domestic duties. They seem unaware that couples are increasingly sharing both domestic responsibilities and outside work. A strong positive relationship emerged between high I.Q. scores and androgynous attitudes. Although less strong, a significant relationship was found between attitudes toward sex roles and ethnicity. Anglos held… [PDF]

Schneps, Jack A.; And Others (1976). Implementation of Strategies for the Handicapped II. Presented are the proceedings of two workshop/conferences given during 1974 on the strategies of 2-year colleges in responding to the career education needs of disabled students in New York State. It is noted that a total of 34 New York community colleges and 23 federal, state, and regional institutions sent representatives to at least one of the five conferences. Provided for the first conference are information on background of the conference (including planning and site selection); a summary of job placement strategies during the orientation program (including pre-admission activities, registration, and post-registration career planning workshops); a summary of strategies during the second and third semesters (including interactions among college staff, and work experiences for disabled students); and placement activities during the fourth semester. Included for the second conference are summaries of the keynote address and the following panel discussions: \Business, Industry,… [PDF]

Scott, Robert A. (1976). Middle-Level Collegiate Administration in a Period of Retrenchment. Middle-level administrative costs and personnel are increasing at a time when other areas are being forced to cut back. These middle-level positions are the deans and directors and assistants of support services in the areas of admissions, counseling, business, accounting and personnel offices, fund raising, safety, public information, alumni affairs, student personnel, registration and scheduling, and similar nonacademic support staff areas. The three functions of these staff are to act as liaison with external suppliers of resources; to implement procedures for internal allocation of resources and control of activities; and to work with student activities and curricular responsibilities. Specific examples of these functions are given. The staffing of these positions has moved from faculty with part-time assignments to the hiring of recent graduates without experience to a combination of the two. In the present period of retrenchment, due to tighter budgets, the need for more… [PDF]

Weislogel, Louis F. (1976). Campus Police. A Study of Existing Policies and Procedures Among the Pennsylvania State Colleges and University and Resultant Implications for Policy Development at West Chester State College. Educational Policies. The purpose of the study was to make recommendations for the development of policy concerning law enforcement at West Chester State College. A survey was conducted of existing law enforcement policies and procedures within the Pennsylvania State colleges. The investigation focused on mission, staffing, training, equipping, and organization. Questionnaires and interviews were used to obtain data. Missions assigned campus police varied. Most schools preferred the \security-safety\ function. Eight-five percent of the departments were located in the administrative affairs division of the institution. The institution's complements were similar despite differing enrollment and geographical locations. There was consensus for requiring the associate degree for employment. In order to improve training, results indicated a need for better articulation between the institutions and the Law Enforcement Academy. Issues affecting policy development were the use of \rent-a-cops,\ the small number… [PDF]

Tatum, Beverly Daniel (1997). "Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?" and Other Conversations about Race. A Psychologist Explains the Development of Racial Identity. This book explores the psychology and the development of racial identity. The book makes the following suggestions: for people of color, the development of a constructive racial identity means being able to resist the bombardment of negative stereotypes and to think of a history of resistance and empowerment rather than one of passive victimization; for white people, racial development must begin with the abandonment of individual racism and the recognition of and opposition to institutional racism. The racial identity development of other people of color, Latinos, American Indians, and Asians, is also discussed. In considering why black students sit together in the cafeteria, the formation of racial identity is explored with real-life examples. The first part of the book discusses racism and the complexity of identity. The second part contains chapters on understanding blackness in a white social context, from early childhood through adolescence and adulthood. The third part…

(2000). Part 106–Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Sex in Education Programs or Activities Receiving Federal Financial Assistance. This document addresses nondiscrimination on the basis of sex in education programs or activities receiving federal financial assistance. It includes the amendments made in the notice of Final Regulations published in the Federal Register on November 13, 2000. The amendments effectuate Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. The official version of this regulation did not appear in the 2000 edition of the Code of Federal Regulations. The amendment is divided into six subparts: (1) introduction; (2) coverage; (3) discrimination on the basis of sex in admission and recruitment; (4) discrimination on the basis of sex in education programs or activities prohibited; (5) discrimination on the basis of sex in employment in education programs or activities prohibited; and (6) procedures. The first section discusses the purpose and effective date of the legislation and provides definitions to terms in the legislation. It outlines numerous obligations, such as remedial and affirmative… [PDF]

Paige, Rod (2002). Confronting Challenges To Change: Remarks of U.S. Secretary of Education Rod Paige (Washington, DC, September 9, 2002). At the National Press Club in Washington, D.C., in September 2002, the U.S. Secretary of Education outlined the Bush Administration's ideas for education reform. This booklet contains the secretary's remarks. He focused on the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, presenting several examples of the act in action. He also discussed additional initiatives such as the State Scholars program, whose goals are to challenge students by providing more rigorous course work, not just for honor students but for all students, and Good Start, Grow Smart, a program that prepares children in Head Start and other early-childhood programs in language, literacy, and numerical skills. The secretary also touched upon professional development for teachers and teacher education, stressing the importance of mastery of a subject and stating, "Far too many teachers are not trained in the subjects they're teaching." Following his prepared remarks, the secretary fielded questions from the press corps…. [PDF]

Beller, Andrea H. (1976). EEO Laws and the Earnings of Women. Reprint 243. This paper discusses two federal programs designed to promote equal employment opportunities for women. It analyzes the impact of the federal contract compliance program (affirmative action) and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 on the absolute level of the earning of black and white working women over the 1967-1974 period. It was found that both programs increased the earnings of women for this period of time. Moreover, it was found that the programs were effective in different ways, and that because of this they are complementary tools for reducing discrimination in employment. Enforcement of Title VII increased earnings primarily within industries and occupations. The federal contract compliance program increased earnings by lessening entry restrictions across industries and occupations, thus allowing women to move into higher paying jobs. Since the two programs are complementary, the entire equal employment opportunities effort could be made more effective if the…

Kistler, Kathleen M. (1979). Equal Opportunity: Women in Administration in the California Community Colleges. This paper examines the extent to which women have attained administrative positions in California community colleges, highlights barriers to women's advancement and methods of overcoming them, and profiles the female college administrator. After citing the low incidence of female community college administrators and the increasing visibility of women in upper-level management, the paper examines the impact of affirmative action on the number of women in administration and identifies the subtle methods of discrimination still evidenced in the job application process. Next, factors contributing to women's lack of advancement are considered, e.g., childhood socialization and the "old boy network," and ways of preparing for an administrative career are suggested, for example, assertiveness training, keeping abreast of developments and job openings in the field, and organizing support groups. Recommendations are then offered for finding and securing administrative positions…

Trombley, William, Ed. (2004). National CrossTalk. Volume 12, Number 1, Winter 2004. National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education "National CrossTalk" is a publication of the National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education. The National Center promotes public policies that enhance opportunities for quality education and training beyond high school. The primary purpose of "National CrossTalk" is to stimulate informed discussion and debate of higher education issues. This issue of "National CrossTalk" contains the following articles: (1) Texas Returns to Affirmative Action: Readjustment and Confusion in the Aftermath of Recent U.S. Supreme Court Decisions (Carl Irving); (2) Can Athletics and Academics Coexist? Colleges and Universities Wrestle with Big-Time Sports (Don Campbell); (3) A Helping Hand: The Community College of Denver Reaches Out to First-Generation Students (Kay Mills); and (4) Ambitious Agenda: Michael Crow Has Brought an Entrepreneurial Spirit to Arizona State University (Kathy Witkowsky). Other Voices, a regularly featured section, presents: (1) Access… [PDF]

Seabury, Paul, Ed. (1979). Bureaucrats and Brainpower: Government Regulation of Universities. The exploration of the growth and cost benefit effectiveness of governmental regulation of higher education is examined in this book. An introductory article by Robert Hatfield examines university regulation from a businessman's perspective. Hatfield concludes that business and higher education must work together to curb the stream of regulation. The first paper on \The Advent of Academic Bureaucrats,\ by Paul Seabury, provides a historical overview of the situation. Richard W. Lyman's paper, \Federal Regulation and Institutional Autonomy: A University President's View,\ surveys some of the regulation on the campus, such as OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) investigations and affirmative action programs. The third paper, \Regulating the Universities,\ by Caspar W. Weinberger, explores university regulation and assesses the impact government control has on the universities. Robert L. Sproull considers the effects of government research contract controls in the…

Hufner, Klaus (1984). The Right to Education: The Case of the Federal Republic of Germany. This paper investigates the extension of educational rights to girls, working class children, and the children of migrant workers in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). The first section discusses the theoretical basis of affirmative action in West Germany, legal provisions for attaining equality in education, and basic features of the West German educational system. Section II presents a legal overview of the right to education at the national and international levels. Although the German constitution does not contain an explicit "basic right to education," German policy is said to have been shaped by judicial interpretation, the influence of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, and the FRG's acceptance of the European Social Charter. Developments in German education, from 1960 to 1980, are outlined in Section III. Statistics are presented to document increased government expenditures to meet the growing demands of German students. Discussed next are…

(1989). Graduate and Professional School Applications, Admissions and Enrollments (1981-1988): A Status Report on Ethnic Groups Underrepresented at UC Davis. Research Synopsis No. 29. This report describes postgraduate enrollment trends for ethnic groups underrepresented at University of California, Davis. The UC Davis Student Affirmative Action (SAA) Plan identifies the following groups as underrepresented in both the Graduate Division and professional schools: American Indian, Black/African-American, Chicano/Mexican American, Filipino/Pilipino, and Latino/Spanish-American. The report refers to this group collectively as SAA students. The Plan also designates Asian students to be underrepresented in certain graduate fields as well as in Management and Veterinary Medicine. The number of students from underrepresented ethnic groups applying to and enrolling in the UC Davis Graduate Division increased dramatically between 1981 and 1988, resulting in a doubling of the proportion of SAA students. Applications to UC Davis professional schools of Management, Law, Medicine, and Veterinary Medicine declined overall from 1981 to 1988; the number of SAA applicants declined… [PDF]

Lusane, Clarence (1997). Race in the Global Era. African Americans at the Millennium. Race is only one of the prisms through which to examine the political and social life of Americans, but it is one in which there has been insufficient determination of contemporary dynamics. For this discussion, the most important issue is the debate within the black community regarding the nature and causes of the crisis facing African Americans and the pathways toward solutions. The essays in this book explore manifestations of contemporary racial politics and the ways in which race crisscrosses and unites the span of society. The following essays are included: (1) "Globalization's Impact on Race Relations"; (2) "If I Were a Rich Man: Race, Gender, and Poverty" (welfare reform); (3) "California Scheming" (affirmative action, race, and politics in California); (4) "To Be or Not To Be? Race, Class, and Ebonics"; (5) "O. J. and the Symbolic Use of Racial Exceptions"; (6) "Thug Life: The Rap on Capitalism" (black cultural…

McCuen, Sharon J. (1989). American River College Human Resources Development Plan, Report 1988-1989. Implementation and Evaluation and Plans for 1989-1990. In 1988, American River College (ARC) formed a staff development advisory committee to respond to Assembly Bill (AB) 1725, which provides funding for locally developed staff development programs. The committee determined that structures were already in place for a comprehensive staff development effort and that those structures should be used to implement an expanded program under AB 1725. The committee also agreed that programs for all college staff should be developed in the areas of affirmative action, computer training, and shared governance. Implementation of the plan began immediately following receipt of AB 1725 funds. Programs designed specifically for faculty, classified staff, or managers included the development of an instructional skills workshop, expansion of the Staff and Institutional Development Committee's grants to faculty, awarding of faculty development leaves and release time, travel grants to classified staff for workshops and conferences, and the funding of…

(1982). Minority Elderly Services: New Programs, Old Problems. Part II. A Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights. This report contains the final results of the United States Commission on Civil Rights' investigation of race and ethnic discrimination in federally assisted programs for older persons. The investigation was the result of allegations that the minority elderly were not being served by Older Americans Act programs. The information reported was obtained by questionnaires mailed to all State, area, and territory agencies on aging and from personal interviews with program administrators at the Federal level. Information on employment data covers minority representation, bilingual staffing, affirmative action programs, the handling of discrimination complaints, and Administration on Aging's enforcement of policies and practices. Data on participation of minority organizations and firms in Title III and Title IV of the Older Americans Act are analyzed in a discussion of representation, outreach efforts, and monitoring and compliance activities. Monitoring and evaluation of minority… [PDF]

Amos, Arthur K., Jr. (1986). Persistence and Graduation of UC Davis Undergraduates: 1971-1983. Persistence and graduation rates of four types of undergraduate students at the University of California, Davis, (UC Davis) are examined: domestic students with fewer than 12.5 college transfer units, including both regularly admitted students and those admitted by special action; and domestic students admitted with at least 84 but less than 135 college units (junior transfers). Included in the analysis are minority students admitted under an affirmative action effort. Findings include: UC Davis graduated 62.6% of new entrants admitted between 1971 and 1978 with fewer than 12.5 transfer units by winter 1985; a decreasing percentage of students are graduating in 4 years, going from a high of 48.0% for 1972 entrants to 26.6% for 1980 entrants; among new students entering with fewer than 12.5 college units, the proportion of those admitted by special action has increased from 3.8% of the 1971 cohort to 9.7% of the 1984 cohort; of entrants admitted by special action between 1971 and… [PDF]

Hammond, Carol, Ed. (1989). Crossing Borders: New Territories in the 90's. Contributed Papers Presented at the Arizona State Library Association Conference (Tucson, Arizona, November 1989). Twelve reports comprise this collection from the 1989 Arizona State Association Conference: (1) "CD ROMs Teach Online Searching" (Susan Awe); (2) "Collection Development as Intellectual Activity: An East Asian Specialist's View" (Ju-yen Teng); (3) "Computer-Assisted Reference Service in Map Librarianship: Electronic Access to Cartographic Information" (Charlene M. Baldwin and Jack D. Mount); (4) "Crossing Borders: From Slip Catalog to OPAC" (Margaret F. Maxwell); (5) "Expanding the Borders of Educated America: The Librarian's Role in Recruitment and Retention of Minority Students" (Jeanne L. Pfander); (6) "From Equal Opportunity to Affirmative Action: Changing Hiring Practices at the University of Arizona" (Merri Hartse, Atifa Rawan, and Roger Scanland); (7) "Going Offline (sort of): The Impact and Implications of CD-ROM and PAC Databases as Online Alternatives" (George Machovec and Dennis Brunning); (8)… [PDF]

(2003). The Supreme Court of the United States Syllabus: Grutter v. Bollinger et al. Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. Argued April 1, 2003-Decided June 23, 2003. October Term, 2002. (Slip Opinion.). This legal document presents the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in the affirmative action case brought against the University of Michigan's Law School. On June 23, 2003, the Court held in Grutter v. Bollinger et al. that diversity is a compelling interest in higher education and that race is one of a number of factors that can be taken into account to achieve the educational benefits of a diverse student body. The Court found that the educational benefits of diversity are real and had been substantiated by the university and its amici in supporting briefs. It also found that the individualized, whole-file review used in the University of Michigan Law School's admissions process is narrowly tailored to achieve the educational benefits of diversity. The Court held that the Law School's goal of attaining a critical mass of underrepresented minority students does not transform its program into a quota and that its flexible admissions policy does not unduly harm members of any racial… [PDF]

Laitsch, Dan; Rodi, Katherine G. (2004). Reflections on the 50th Anniversary of the Landmark Decision. Brown v. Board of Education. Info Brief. Number 37. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development In the 50 years since "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka" formally desegregated public schools, there has been enormous progress in the academic success of African Americans, particularly in high school completion, improved test scores, increased college enrollment, and attainment of advanced degrees, as well as full access to and participation in all areas of employment. Despite the great strides that have been made over the past half-century, however, many schools in the United States are once again segregating; previous efforts to address inequities and racial isolation, including busing and affirmative action, are being rolled back; and serious disparities remain in minority graduation rates, school achievement, and participation in higher education. Many of the current issues that educators and policymakers face regarding race and minority achievement have their roots in the history of "Brown". The issues that originated under the institutional racism… [Direct]

Altbach, Philip G., Ed.; Lomotey, Kofi, Ed. (1991). The Racial Crisis in American Higher Education. This collection of essays addresses the need for continued research in race-related issues on college campuses. The book examines the causes and the impact of campus racial tensions by studying some key university case studies and by investigating some of the underlying elements of the crisis. Essays and their authors are as follows: \The Racial Dilemma in American Higher Education\ (Philip G. Altbach); \The Changing Demographics: Problems and Opportunities\ (Lewis C. Solmon, Tamara L. Wingard); \Racism and the Model Minority: Asian-Americans in Higher Education\ (Sucheng Chan, Ling-chi Wang); \Race Relations on Campus: An Administrative Perspective\ (Alan Colon); \The Undergraduate Curriculum and the Issues of Race: Opportunities and Obligations\ (Leon Botstein); \Student Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Addressing Underrepresentation\ (William T. Trent); \Black Faculty in Academia\ (Kenneth W. Jackson); \Making the Short List: Black Candidates and the Faculty Recruitment…

Cowen, Sonia S., Ed. (1995). Administration Self-Study and Evaluation Visit by the New Mexico Department of Education's Vocational-Technical Programs (April 17-20, 1995). This report presents results from a self-study of program administration and State Department of Education evaluation visit conducted at New Mexico State University's two-year branch campus at Carlsbad in April 1995. College activities and outcomes are described for the following 10 areas: (1) marketing, describing the college's marketing plan from administrative and faculty presentations at public meetings and high school career days to posters and program pamphlets; (2) special group enrollment, including an affirmative action plan, outreach programs to recruit minorities and the disadvantaged, and services to meet student needs; (3) counseling and career advisement, indicating that counselors are available throughout the year to help students with academic and career questions; (4) developmental education, including basic skills instruction, tutorial assistance, and educational training plans for each student; (5) job placement services, describing departments and agencies… [PDF]

(2006). Higher Education in a Global Society Achieving Diversity, Equity and Excellence (Advances in Education in Diverse Communities: Research Policy and Praxis, Volume 5). Elsevier The "problem of the 21st century" is rapidly expanding diversity alongside stubbornly persistent status and power inequities by race, ethnicity, gender, class, language, citizenship and region. Extensive technological, economic, political and social changes, along with immigration, combine to produce a global community of great diversity and interpenetration. Unfortunately, this global community continues to be fractured by extreme disparities in wealth and power, divided into "haves" and "have-nots." Universities around the globe can play critical roles in economic development and sociocultural exchange. Where different communities interact, overlap, exchange and compete for scarce resources, complex challenges are presented. Current discourse often views difference and diversity as problems; however, a growing scholarship reframes difference and diversity as potential resources. This volume presents research into the consequences of difference and…

Rasor, Marianne (1981). EOP and SAA Undergraduates Who Left UC Davis without a Degree. Undergraduate students enrolled in the Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) or the Student Affirmative Action (SAA) program at the University of California (UC), Davis, who withdrew before graduation were surveyed in 1981. Attention was directed to the respondents' educational experiences after leaving, their current employment, and their feelings about enrollment at the University. Analysis of responses from 186 former students, or 16 percent of the total population, indicated the following: 75 percent enrolled at another educational institution after leaving UC Davis; about 25 percent of these transfer students had earned degrees, and most of the remainder were still working toward a degree; job satisfaction among employed respondents was mixed; about 50 percent are working in their chosen career field, slightly over 50 percent are satisfied with their jobs, and about 20 percent are dissatisfied; a majority left UC Davis because of academic factors, and many found the coursework…

(1991). Fair and Open Environment? Bigotry and Violence on College Campuses in California. A Summary Report. This is a summary report of a community forum conducted in Berkeley, California on July 18, 1989 on occurrences of bigotry and violence on college campuses in California. Twenty-five representatives of community groups, universities, federal agencies, and community organizations appeared to present their perspectives. Observations on campus climate included description of incidents, their type and frequency; comments on diversity and changes in the demographics of the student body over the past 20 years; discussion of admissions policies and their impact on campus life; description of programs to combat bigotry; and discussion of faculty diversity and affirmative action, institutional efforts to increase diversity, and controversies and policies attached to those efforts. A summary notes that: (1) some believe that a lack of planning for student diversity was the basis for the campus incidents of the 1980s; (2) negative attitudes about minority students may permeate administrative,… [PDF]

Joseph, Myron L. (1978). Selection and Performance in a Gas Utility Company. Final Report. A study of employment procedures at an unnamed gas utility company was made, examining selection procedures, white and blue collar employee performance, promotion rates, and turnover. The data is based on application files, interviews with management personnel, and employee records. The company relied primarily on walk-ins and employee referrals for its job applicants. Private employment agencies were used for some specialized white collar jobs. Social agencies and the employment service were sources of black applicants. The company's selection procedures included informal and subjective elements that led to employment preference for white applicants who were related to company employees. Black employees were hired primarily as a consequence of explicit affirmative action by the company's personnel office at headquarters. Variables that had a significant effect on the screening and hiring of new employees were referral sources, aptitude and intelligence tests, and evidence of… [PDF]