Basten, Jay; Cole, John; Maestas, Ricardo; Mason, Katherine (1997). Redefining the Virtuous Cycle: Replacing the Criterion of Race with Socioeconomic Status in the Admissions Process in Highly Selective Institutions. ASHE Annual Meeting Paper. This study examined characteristics of the student bodies of highly selective and less-selective colleges and universities specifically those related to race and socioeconomic status (SES) and the possible effects of replacing race and ethnicity with SES as a method for ensuring student diversity. The study used data from the Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP), specifically data from freshmen (n=4,408) entering college in 1986. Independent variables included socioeconomic factors (income, parents' educational levels and occupations), race, and background factors (Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, high school grades, gender, and high school rank). Institutional selectivity was the dependent variable. Analysis confirmed the hypothesis that academically and socioeconomically advantaged students are more likely to attend highly selective institutions than other students, and six of the nine independent variables were found to be significant predictors of attendance… [PDF]

Johnson, Beth Hillman, Ed.; Lowe, Ida B., Ed. (1994). Collective Bargaining in Higher Education and the Professions. Bibliography No. 22. This bibliography of 886 citations is an annual accounting of the literature on collective bargaining in higher education and the professions for 1993. The research design and methodology used in the preparation of this volume relied on computer searches of various data bases, as well as manual retrieval of citations not available on data bases. Sources include books, monographs, dissertations, journals, periodicals, research and conference papers, and newspaper articles and are grouped into either the faculty bibliography or the professions and professionals bibliography. References are listed by author within the following subject areas: academic freedom, administration, affirmative action, Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) in the workplace, arbitration and mediation, collective bargaining, collective bargaining (Canada), community colleges, comparable worth, discipline and dismissal, discrimination, drug testing, ethics, evaluation, excellence, faculty, fiscal issues,… [PDF]

Beckham, Joseph C. (1983). School Officials and the Courts: Update 1983. ERS Monograph. Sixth in a series providing a scope treatment of case law on a wide range of public school issues, this monograph reviews selected federal and state decisions handed down between June 30, 1982 and June 30, 1983. School board issues covered include at-large election, open meeting laws, and authority to close schools, reduce slaries, interpret disciplinary policy, and limit information dissemination. Decisions involving administrators include certification and licensure, suspension, corporal punishment, tenure, nepotism, and discrimination. Finance issues include tax deduction for educational expenses, misapplication of federal funds, and charging nonresident tuition and activity fees. Cases concerning collective bargaining involve mandatory subjects, selection and authority of bargaining representative, seniority versus affirmative action, cost-of-living clauses, contract enforcement, grievance administration, and bias-in-strike resolutions. A section on teachers reviews decisions on…

(1987). Agreement between South Dakota Board of Regents and Council of Higher Education, an Affiliate of the South Dakota Education Association and the National Education Association, May 22, 1987. The collective bargaining agreement between the South Dakota Board of Regents and the Council of Higher Education (COHE), an affiliate of the South Dakota Education Association and the National Education Association (NEA), is presented, covering the period July 1, 1987 through June 30, 1988. It sets forth the conditions of employment for all faculty (in both higher education institutions and special regental schools) represented by the Council of Higher Education. Division I of the agreement, which provides general provisions for all institutions, covers the following: definitions, recognition, management rights, COHE status, nondiscrimination, civil rights, affirmative action, contract disputes (including faculty grievances), evaluation, transfer, assignment and reassignment, faculty unit member reduction procedures, academic freedom, code of conduct for discipline, personnel files, academic governance, unit member responsibilities, working conditions, leaves, fringe benefits,… [PDF]

(1976). Spec Kits; Systems and Procedures in the Area of Library Management. The Systems and Procedures Exchange Center (SPEC) of the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) compiles these SPEC Kits as a means of sharing management techniques and expertise. The materials enclosed in each kit are reproductions of working tools developed by individual libraries to meet their specific purposes within a limited area of library operations. Kits in the general area of library administration cover such topics as: goals and objectives statements, organization charts, friends of the library organizations, foundations, planning systems, and the systems function in ARL Libraries. In the area of personnel practices, topics include: personnel organization, status of librarians, affirmative action, performance review, personnel classification schemes and job descriptions, collective bargaining, tenure policies, leave policies, staff development, staff associations, managerial and technical specialists, paraprofessionals, and grievance procedures. Topics in the area of…

Simpson, Mary-Margaret, Ed. (1993). Great Plains Beacon. v1 n1-4 1991-92, v2 n1-3 1992-93. The 7 newsletter issues presented here review the efforts of 10 Midwestern community colleges to achieve greater leadership diversity on their campuses. Called Beacon projects (or collectively, the Beacon Project) after the grant that provided the funding for these efforts, the projects described cover a wide range of approaches. Among them are the following: (1) the development of a directory of diversity-related resources compiled by Austin Community College (ACC); (2) the development of racial harassment policy at Front Range Community College (FRCC); (3) staff development efforts to enhance cultural sensitivity at Metro-Kansas City Community College; (4) a 10-site audio conference for Beacon program staff; (5) a workshop at MCC on sexual orientation; (6) a teleconference on leadership diversity; (7) establishment of a Diversity Contribution Award at FRCC; (8) a gender workshop at Kirkwood Community College; (9) a workshop on sexual harassment, cultural diversity, and affirmative… [PDF]

(1972). Area Health Education Center of the Navajo Health Authority to Establish the Navajo Center for Health Professions Education. The Area Health Education Center (AHEC) is designed to provide educational opportunities in health and allied fields and to improve health care for the Navajo people and other Indians in the region that includes and immediately surrounds the Navajo Indian Reservation. As prime contractor, the University of New Meixco School of Medicine will implement, coordinate, and evaluate the interventions specified in the AHEC Work Statement. These interventions, in summary form, are as follows: (1) initiate a Center for Health Professions Education; (2) assist the Navajo people in identifying health needs and establishing priorities for intervention; (3) determine health manpower needs and implement appropriate educational opportunit:es; (4) provide technical assistance to the Navajo Community College and the Gallup Branch of UNM in the development of preprofessional, allied health, and basic science curricula; (5) incorporate traditional Navajo healing sciences in existing health programs;…

Davidson, Mary (1983). A Promise of Simple Justice in the Education of Chicago School Children? Interim Report. The interim findings of a citizen commission charged with monitoring the implementation of the Chicago (Illinois) Public School desegregation plan are presented. The first of four sections of the report describes the context for the monitoring effort, including legal suits against the school systems in the 1960s and the events and legal decisions leading to the desegregation plan and the formation of the district's Monitoring Commission for Desegregation Implementation. The second section describes the monitoring experiences including the targeted schools, the organization and membership of the commission, the magnet schools and transfer options, other educational components, the affirmative action and staff development efforts, and reflections on the first year of the monitoring effort. The third section describes the monitoring strategy and includes an interim report from each of the commission's subcommittees along with the methodologies and findings. The findings indicate that… [PDF]

(1989). Black New Yorkers Status Report. Volume 2. The New York State Governor's Advisory Committee for Black Affairs has published eight policy reports that evaluate State initiatives impacting the lives of black New Yorkers. Special emphasis was placed on the following areas: (1) development of increased opportunities in all aspects of State government; (2) coordination of resources to create effective educational, vocational, and health training programs; (3) evaluation of programs and services provided by State agencies and policy decisions affecting the black community; (4) development of awareness programs to assist members of the black community in identifying and participating in State and local programs; (5) evaluation of proposed State policies affecting blacks; and (6) review of the implementation of affirmative action programs designed to increase employment opportunities in State government. The following reports are described: (1) "The Black Family: Current Crisis/Recent Trends"; (2) "Health: Conditions,…

Hesch, Rick (1990). Aboriginal Teachers as Organic Intellectuals. This paper reviews an instructor's experience in teaching a social studies methods course. The course focused on the themes of anti-racist education and critical pedagogy and was taught to a group of eight aboriginal women enrolled in the Saskatchewan Urban Native Teacher Education Program (SUNTEP). SUNTEP is an affirmative action teacher education program for students of Metis ancestry in Saskatchewan. The class encouraged social change by developing preservice teachers into organic intellectuals. Organic intellectuals use the language of their culture to express the real experiences and feelings of their people. Anti-racist education focuses on changing institutions rather than individuals. Critical pedagogy incorporates student experience and lived culture as a curriculum concern, and emphasizes dialogue that organizes knowledge students already possess. Requirements of the class included: (1) a paper analyzing a local education policy based on multicultural assumptions; (2)…

Van Gelder, Naneene, Ed. (1980). References & Resources for Secretaries and Clerical Personnel, 1980. Manual 4200-1. Developed as a resource guide for all secretaries and clerical personnel employed in the San Diego Community College District (SDCCD), this manual provides information on matters ranging from district procedures and office operations to English usage and professional growth. The manual's 21 chapters cover: (1) district history, philosophy, and affirmative action policies; (2) district organization; (3) emergency procedures; (4) communication with the Board of Trustees and preparation of Board docket items; (5) guidelines for supervisors for secretarial time management and working with their staff; (6) the importance of attitude, teamwork, and individual behavior in job success; (7) personal and professional growth, and pet peeves of bosses; (8) preparing job descriptions and desk job procedure manuals; (9) tips for time management, fitness, dictation and transcription, typing, duplication, and form development; (10) sources of information on, for example, district policies and…

(1988). Memordandum of Understanding: The City of Baltimore [and the] Community College of Baltimore Faculty Federation, Local 1980 AFT, AFL-CIO, July 1, 1988-June 30, 1990. This collective bargaining agreement was negotiated in 1988 between the City of Baltimore and the Community College of Baltimore Faculty Federation to establish terms of employment for the college's full-time faculty. The 17 articles in this contract cover: (1) union recognition and definitions; (2) union-board relations, including standards of professional behavior, union membership, board meetings, conflict with policy, and a schedule for negotiations; (3) union activities, including union office space and meetings, dues deduction, and faculty representation; (4) academic freedom, non-discrimination, and affirmative action; (5) grievances; (6) insurance and fringe benefits; (7) conditions of employment, including determination of seniority, maintenance of effective employment conditions, evaluation of faculty members' performance, royalties, and complaints; (8) leaves, including leaves with pay, such as sabbatical and sick leaves, and leaves without pay, such as military leave and…

(1978). Managerial and Technical Specialists. SPEC Kit 20. This kit is compiled from documentation received as a result of a 1975 Association of Research Libraries (ARL) survey on the use of specialists in member libraries; updated materials gathered in 1978 are included. Survey data from 64 ARL members indicate wide utilization of various managerial and technical specialists. Of these, personnel librarians appear as the most frequent category among responding institutions (72%). Systems analysts and either budget officers, planning officers, or planning/budget officers are found in more than half the responding libraries. Computer programmers, audiovisual specialists, and staff development officers are reportedly employed less frequently in ARL libraries. In addition to positions mentioned in the survey, binding/restoration specialists, curators of special collections, library editor/publicists, building projects managers, affirmative action coordinators, and photographic services specialists are found in some of the responding libraries….

Smart, John C., Ed. (1986). Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research. Volume II. Theory and research on the effectiveness of college operations are covered in 12 chapters. Current research on each topic is reviewed, with attention to conceptual and methodological issues, and an agenda for future research is offered. Chapter titles and authors are as follows: \Transformational Leadership in Colleges and Universities\ (Kim S. Cameron, David O. Ulrich); \Managing Decline in American Higher Education\ (Raymond F. Zammuto); \The Importance of Being General: Philosophy, Politics, and Institutional Mission Statements\ (Gordon K. Davies); \Postscript to 'The Importance of Being General,' by Gordon K. Davies–The Campus as Chameleon: Rethinking Organizational Behavior and Public Policy\ (John R. Thelin); \Affirmative-Action Employment Discrimination: The Higher Education Fragment\ (Monique Weston Clague); \Evaluation Research and Educational Decision-Making: A Review of the Literature\ (Jonathan Z. Shapiro); \Rates of Return to Higher Education: An Intensive Examination\…

(1987). Wentworth Institute of Technology Factbook. Issue #7. Current and historical information on the Wentworth Institute of Technology (WIT) is provided in this factbook, with focus on college programs, applicants, enrollments, graduates, and other services. Part I provides a brief overview of the 83-year history of the college. Part II looks at the organization and administration of WIT, including data on affirmative action and staffing trends. WIT programs are the focus of part III, which considers degree programs; such research and professional services as Air Force contracts and faculty research incentives; international programs with the People's Republic of China, Philippines, and Republic of China; and the cooperative education program. Part IV offers longitudinal data on fall opening enrollments, enrollment by division, enrollment by program of instruction, student population by terms, freshman enrollment by curriculum, first-year enrollment by technology and degree, enrollment of individual colleges and divisions, student…

Price, A. Rae, Ed. (1980). AAWCJC Journal. Vol. 3, No. 1. AAWCJC Journal, v3 n1. A collection of essays, book reviews, conference reports, poetry, and prose is presented. The collection first provides excerpts from articles and poetry presented at the Rural American Women (RAW) conference. Among other topics, these articles consider a vocational training program for economically disadvantaged women in eastern Tennessee; a cooperative, self-help organization established in Greensboro, Alabama; and the funding of programs for older, nontraditional students at Moberly Junior College (MO). Next, essays by Doris A. Meek and Irene Tinker discuss the proceedings and ramifications of the Official World Conference of the United Nations and the Non-Governmental Mid-Decade Forum, which were held simultaneously in Copenhagen in July 1980. Three brief reports follow, examining attitudes toward affirmative action and funding for women's programs under the Reagan Administration; the characteristics of successful women administrators; and the Texas Student Information System…. [PDF]

(1981). Missions and Functions of the California Community Colleges. One in a Series of Staff Papers for Discussion. Commission Report 81-14. In an attempt to stimulate discussion on directions and priorities for the California community colleges (CCC), this monograph examines six issues likely to affect the colleges during the 1980's. The monograph first reviews recent literature pointing to an erosion of the colleges' transfer, vocational, and general education functions and then discusses the following concerns: (1) overcoming the image of "two-year colleges" and assuming the role of lifelong learning centers; (2) improving the implementation of open-admissions policies through student assessment, screening, and placement in courses and programs appropriate to their skills and abilities; (3) improving articulation with high schools and utilizing newly created high school graduation proficiency exams as competency standards for entering freshmen; (4) allocating affirmative action funds to programs to recruit minority students into transfer programs and programs for severely disadvantaged minority adults; (5)… [PDF]

(1978). Legal Issues in Teacher Evaluation. Handbook. Various legal issues associated with teacher evaluation and significant court decisions are summarized in this handbook. Three major legal issues are defined: (1) failure of the school district to follow due process when terminating tenured and non-tenured teachers, or when abolishing positions; (2) discrimination in employment and promotion, or failure to comply with affirmative action legislation; and (3) improper use of tests (particularly, the National Teacher Examination), or use of invalid, unreliable criteria for hiring and evaluating teachers. Summaries of 27 court cases are presented which cite landmark decisions and indicate recent legal developments which relate to the three major issues. These cases are not restricted to actions involving teachers. Several legislative acts are also summarized: the first and fourteenth amendments of the United States Constitution; Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964–Equal Employment Opportunity; Equal Employment Opportunity…

Wood, R. Ronald (1976). [Project: MOBILITY.] Research and Design Project for Disadvantaged Student Programs and Needs Assessment of Select Disadvantaged Students Programs at Fresno City College. Summary of Final Report. Need Assessment. The results of a needs assessment designed to determine the needs and problems of select disadvantaged students completing vocational education programs at Fresno City College (FCC), California, are presented in this report. Part 1 provides the needs assessment and program planning model, including a flow chart, and the narrative description. Part 2 describes the field testing of the model: the concerns assessment and the student testing and FCC records data. Part 3 includes the following measurable student objectives for the Extended Opportunity Program and the Enabler Program at FCC developed from the data obtained from the needs assessment: retention, attitudes, measurements, affirmative action, program completion, personal growth/fulfillment outcomes, required skills/knowledge outcomes, and grade point average outcomes. Part 4 presents these conclusions: using the tools and logic of educational system planning, a needs assessment and planning model for community college… [PDF]

(1979). Shortchanged and Slighted: An Assessment of the Department of Labor's National Response to Women's Employment and Training Needs. This paper examines the administration of funds under Title III of the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act by the Department of Labor (DOL) with respect to women workers. (Title III funds are discretionary funds administered by DOL's Employment and Training Administration, Division of National Programs (DNP), to provide additional services to special segments of the population, in this case, women.) Six specific DNP-administered programs are examined: Apprenticeship Outreach, Journeyman Outreach Training, National On-the-Job Training, Promotion and Development, Operational Support to Community-Based Organizations, and Program for Selected Population Segments. The analysis indicates "a serious lack of commitment to the employment needs of women at a national level." Major conclusions of the report are that DNP (1) appears to have no formal, comprehensive affirmative action policy regarding women for existing contracts; (2) has funded only a few employment programs…

Fishman, Walda Katz (1979). The Right-Wing Attack on Women. A personal evaluation is expressed on the changing role of women in the United States as a result of current social attitudes and of recent legislation regarding medical, economic, and educational matters. It is hypothesized that the United States is currently experiencing an extreme and growing right-wing political movement whose targets include women, workers, ethnic and religious minorities, and homosexuals. Right wing movements are interpreted as embodying a political philosophy (elitist versus democratic) and an organizational structure (corporate class encouragement of activities to maintain a position of power and privilege). Organizations associated with right-wing attitudes include the National Association of Manufacturers, the Chamber of Commerce, and the National Right to Work Committee. Recent instances in which these right wing attitudes have worked against rights of women and other ethnic minorities include the Bakke decision on affirmative action enforcement, anti…

(1978). Maryland Accountability Program Report, Year IV. School Year 1976-1977. The fourth report required by the Maryland Educational Accountability Act, this report contains information about goals for Maryland public education and progress toward those goals. An introductory chapter explains accountability, the Maryland Accountability Act, and limitations of current instruments for measuring learning progress. The second chapter chronicles accomplishments of the Maryland State Department of Education, including educational programs, public library programs, vocational rehabilitation programs, and other program support services in such areas as affirmative action, teacher certification, and accreditation of schools and programs. The central purpose of the report, to present Maryland accountability assessment information, is accomplished in Chapter Three. Results show that Maryland scores on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills at the third-grade level are the same as or significantly ahead of the national norms. At the fifth-grade level, scores are close to the…

Millet, June E.; Smith, Lawrence H. (1973). Video Tape Application to Higher Education: Pre-Employment Screening. Final Report. Significant needs and additional pressures have been imposed on those persons involved in faculty selection activities on college campuses today. The combination of greater numbers of highly qualified candidates and restricted interview budgets suggests the need for more efficient and less costly methods of employment screening. In addition, further exacerbation of an already difficult situation is developing from the attempts of institutions of higher education to comply with the Affirmative Action Guidelines set forth by the federal government. The videotape technique presented in this document was assessed by the participants in this study to be an extremely valuable tool in the faculty screening preemployment process. In addition, the videotape provided the feedback information necessary to counsel the interviewee with respect to his relative interview strengths and weaknesses. Most importantly, this information is based on the comparison of the interviewee's self-perception to… [PDF]

Legaspi, Perla E. (1997). The Academe in the Promotion of Adult Literacy. The delivery of literacy services by state universities in the Philippines is embedded in their academic functions of instruction/teaching, research and development, consultancy, and extension services. To reach a larger clientele and democratize access to education, the University of the Philippines (UP) has established the Open University. The Philippine Normal University has a developed a comprehensive development plan for the second district of Negros Occidental region with the following components that promote adult literacy: Nonformal Education for the Out-of-School Youth, Nonformal Education for Adults, and Continuing and Lifelong Education Program. UP has a very strong extension program. Among the services under this volunteer program that relate to the promotion of adult literacy are the following: Affirmative Action Program; Pinatubo Rehabilitation and Resettlement Program; Ecology Camp; Coastal Resource Management Program; Service Learning; Tutorial Program; Community… [PDF]

(2000). Legal Issues in Education Practice: Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century. Papers [of the] Education Law Association Annual Conference (46th, Atlanta, Georgia, November 9-11, 2000). Topic Outlines. This document contains the conference papers of the Education Law Association's 2000 conference. The papers examine school prayer; student speech under the Equal Access Act; the control of student behavior and expression; legal challenges facing the charter-school movement, the future of special-education law, school desegregation decrees, and charter-school innovation; collegiality and tenure; the use of statistics in discrimination cases; the electronic media and school violence; freedom of expression outside the classroom; developments in church/state/school relations; higher education and affirmative action; vouchers; student-led prayer in school; the Milwaukee parental-choice program; practical tips in representing school clients; a framework for addressing school test-use issues; providing services to the youngest children with disabilities; student handbooks; legal issues in teacher evaluation and remediation; Title VII and the First Amendment; litigation and the future of…

Conley, Valerie Martin; Hyer, Patricia B (1999). A Faculty Assessment of the Campus Climate for Diversity. ASHE Annual Meeting Paper. This study reports on a multi-faceted assessment effort for diversity underway at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. The four major elements of this project include: (1) archival research of the institution's history of segregation and desegregation; (2) a report on the status of women and minority faculty, staff, and students; (3) climate surveys of faculty, staff, and students; and (4) interviews with various constituents and benchmarking visits to other institutions. This paper focuses on the survey of faculty's assessment of the campus climate for diversity. The survey questionnaire, which was mailed to all 2,648 faculty members both on and off campus, included questions on professional treatment and social acceptance in the department, institutional climate, attitudes about affirmative action, level of commitment evidenced by institutional leaders, and personal experiences with discrimination and harassment. The response rate was 50 percent. The survey… [PDF]

Fetter, Jean H. (1995). Questions and Admissions: Reflections on 100,000 Admissions Decisions at Stanford. This is a first-hand account of the process used in selecting undergraduates at Stanford University (California) between 1984 and 1991. The topics covered are also relevant to the procedures followed in many four-year colleges throughout the United States. There are sections on the use and abuse of standardized tests and on special considerations such as extracurricular talents, alumni parents and siblings, faculty and staff parents, and donors. The topic of ethical dilemmas, notably the possibility of dishonesty by applicants and high school and college admissions officials, is considered. There is also discussion of the underlying philosophical issues and practical applications of affirmation action policies and problems associated with scholarship support, especially for athletes and international students. Case studies and anecdotes drawn from the author's experience as the Dean of Undergraduate Admissions illustrate the text. The first chapter is a brief history of admissions…

(1991). The Basic Agenda: Policy Directions and Priorities for the Nineties. Each year, the Board of Governors of the California Community Colleges (CCC) develops and adopts a Basic Agenda that sets forth current priorities for the 107-college system. Guided by emerging trends and issues, the 1991-92 Basic Agenda constitutes the Board of Governor's long-range planning document for the 1990's. The report's introduction describes the most important objectives of the CCC for the coming decade, which include ensuring educational quality; developing the system; implementing the educational legislation of Assembly Bills 3 and 1725; improving the system's image; accommodating enrollment demands; fostering diversity; and strengthening California's economic development efforts. The next six sections of the report review issues related to general and transfer education, including educational standards, English as a Second Language (ESL), and basic skills; economic development and vocational education; student services; human resources, including staffing, diversity,…

Alexander, Benjamin H.; Royster, Preston M. (1984). Issues in the Educational Progress of Black People. Educational progress for black people requires elimination of racial prejudice and discrimination against the poor. Several issues relating to the education of black people are discussed: (1) blacks continue to be incorrectly stereotyped as intellectually inferior; (2) historically, blacks suffered from discriminatory educational practices; (3) parents, friends, and relatives of some black students, as well as the students themselves, need to provide educational motivation because it is evident that achievement is possible despite the obstacles set up by others; (4) the academic environment needs attention–with efforts being made toward making learning as interesting and enjoyable as possible; (5) failing students should be retained until they learn a given grade level's material–past problems in this area have caused many students to be unprepared for high school and college work; (6) universities should be relatively flexible in their admissions policies, denying admission only…

McCormack, Wayne, Ed. (1978). The Bakke Decision: Implications for Higher Education Admissions. A Report of the ACE-AALS Committee on Bakke. An analysis is presented of the "Bakke" decision and the several opinions of the Supreme Court Justices. The principal issue presented by the case is whether a higher education institution using a selective admission program may adjust that program by giving explicit preference to qualified members of identified racial or ethnic groups who would otherwise be denied admission. The circumstances are outlined in the application and rejection of Allan Bakke to the Medical School of the University of California at Davis. Bakke's Case in the Superior Court of California is analyzed and the considerations in the Supreme Court decision relating to violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1965 are covered. The three principal opinions in the Supreme Court decision were by Justice Powell, one by Justices Brennan, White, Marshall, and Blackmun (each of the latter three also write separate opinions), and one by Justice Stevens (joined by Chief Justice Burger and Justices…