Taylor, William L., Ed.; Yu, Corrine M., Ed. (1997). The Continuing Struggle: Civil Rights and the Clinton Administration. Report of the Citizens' Commission on Civil Rights. In 1993 the Citizens' Commission on Civil Rights concluded that the election of Bill Clinton as President presented a new opportunity to work toward equal opportunity. In 1995, at the midpoint of his first term, the Commission identified the new and often formidable challenges his administration was facing in dealing with issues of equal opportunity and fair treatment. In many respects, the Commission noted, the Clinton administration had made a good beginning in dealing with Federal civil rights performance, but that it remained at the beginning stages of a revitalization of civil rights enforcement. A particular problem was the slow pace of the Clinton administration in filling key civil rights positions, so much so that the Chair of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was not appointed until just before the 1994 election. Part One of this report presents the findings and recommendations of the Citizens' Commission in the context of welfare reform legislation. Part Two… [PDF]

Liss, Susan M., Ed.; Taylor, William L., Ed. (1991). Lost Opportunities: The Civil Rights Record of the Bush Administration Mid-Term. This study of the civil rights policies and practices of the Bush Administration reviews the first 2 years of that administration's actions, presents recommendations for the future, and offers a series of working papers prepared by experts in the civil rights field. Part 1 of two major parts presents the actual report of the Citizen's Commission on Civil Rights, a bipartisan group of former officials of the Federal Government. That report treats civil rights policy and enforcement in the Bush Administration and offers seven recommendations for change. Part 2 presents 22 working papers on civil rights that deal with the following topics: (1) the Civil Rights Act of 1990; (2) education (enforcement in elementary and secondary education, sex discrimination, and minority access to higher education); (3) employment rights (equal employment opportunity and employment rights of older Americans); (4) immigration; (5) health (civil rights impact on national health policies and challenges… [PDF]

Rosser, James M. (1978). After Bakke: The Role of the States. Factors contributing to the underrepresentation of minority groups in higher education and professional schools are discussed, along with suggestions for state postsecondary education agencies and for state legislative and executive branches in light of the Bakke decision. A 1977 Educational Testing Service study concluded that if admissions committees were forced to disregard racial factors, the numbers of minorities in law schools would be greatly reduced and that most of them would attend the least effective institutions. It is noted that underrepresentation of minorities in graduate and professional schools is linked not only to early educational experiences, but also such influences in student background as health, nutrition, family influences, and general living conditiions. Suggestions to state higher education agencies include the following; disseminate accurate information about the Bakke decision to policy-makers, identify and disseminate admissions models that may help… [PDF]

Duncan, Mary Ellen (1991). Catonsville Community College Plans, 1990-91. The purpose of the planning process at Catonsville Community College (CCC) in Maryland is to improve communication and decision making within the organization, to capitalize on the diverse talents and skills of the faculty and staff, and to use the limited resources of the college in ways that best fulfill the institution's mission. The five major steps in the planning process are: information gathering, identifying trends affecting CCC, setting goals and objectives, relating planning to the budget, and reporting outcomes. This five-part 1990-91 planning report for CCC describes the planning process; reviews the committees and personnel involved in the process; presents the planning agenda; examines 10 trends affecting the college and lists the college's goals for addressing these trends; and describes CCC's objectives for 1990-91 in the areas of administration, affirmative action, continuing education, planning and development, the president's staff, student services, and… [PDF]

Wallman, Katherine K. (1988). Losing Count: The Federal Statistical System. Population Trends and Public Policy Occasional Paper Number 16. The main responsibility of the U.S. Bureau of the Census, Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the National Centers for Health and Education Statistics is to collect, process, analyze, and disseminate statistical data on the economic, physical, and social characteristics of the United States. Under the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980, the federal statistical system was curtailed because of major shifts in government policies and the subsequent budget cuts. Statistics have a powerful impact on the economy, and public and private use of federal statistics include: (1) the determination of workers' and retirees' income; (2) moving from market research to affirmative action programs; (3) allocation of monies for domestic assistance programs; (4) research in many fields; and (5) comparison studies. Under the budget constraints, which meant that in the future fewer statistics would be available, federal agencies were beginning to: (1) collect information less frequently; (2) reduce the sample…

Blumstein, James F. (1981). Legal Issues in the Desegregation of Postsecondary Education. The Postsecondary Desegregation Project, Report II. The application of constitutional principles of desegregation, derived from the context of primary and secondary education, to the postsecondary education setting, is addressed in the second of eight reports from the Postsecondary Desegregation Project at Vanderbilt University. The role of the U.S. Department of Education in enforcing the nondiscrimination provisions of Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act is also examined. Attention is directed to the major Supreme Court desegregation decisions, and the controlling principles of liability in non-southern contexts are identified. A rationale to explain the Court's approach to the problem of remedying the effects of governmentally imposed segregation is developed, and postsecondary desegregation cases that have arisen in the states of Alabama, Tennessee, and Virginia are considered. While the case law with respect to desegregation of public primary and secondary schools is rather well developed, case law with respect to… [PDF]

Drushel, Bruce E. (1995). If You Take the King's Shilling, You Do the King's Bidding: Funding and Censorship of Public Television Programs. Public broadcasting in the United States frequently draws criticism from conservatives who accuse it of pursuing an agenda promoting environmentalism, gay rights, affirmative action, reproductive choice, and other liberal causes, and of being hostile to conservative interests such as defense, the pro-life effort, and the promotion of Christian values. To date, concerns over censorship in public television have focused, not on overt efforts by Congress to determine the bounds of acceptable programs, but on not-so-subtle pressure at both the national and the local level to self-censor or risk loss of funding. Several recent cases of controversial programs have led to calls for ties between funding of the public television system and program content–programs such as "Tongues Untied,""Portrait of a Marriage," and "Tales of the City." Assessing the constitutionality of possible future efforts by Congress to place content-related conditions on the funding of… [PDF]

(1987). Black Health Issues in New York State: Condition, Prognosis, Prescription. Executive Summary. Preliminary Report, Health Subcommittee. The Governor's Advisory Committee for Black Affairs. Volume 1, Health. This document summarizes a review of the health problems of blacks in New York. The review comprises the first volume of a study of the needs of the two million blacks in New York. The health status of blacks is examined in each of the following phases of the life cycle: (1) maternal; (2) infancy; (3) childhood; (4) adolescence; (5) adulthood; and (6) the elder years. Related issues of services, access to and availability of medical care, and affirmative action to increase the number of medical and health care professionals to serve the black community are also reviewed. The following preliminary findings are outlined: (1) the health status of blacks has improved substantially in the past 5 years, but significant disparities continue to exist between blacks and other New Yorkers; (2) there is a clear connection between poverty and poor health, with a complex interaction of socioeconomic and behavioral factors adversely affecting the health and longevity of blacks; (3) blacks of all…

Califa, Antonio; McClure, Phyllis (1986). Justice Denied: The Loss of Civil Rights after the Grove City College Decision. The impact of the Supreme Court's 1984 Grove City College v. Bell decision on the interpretation of civil rights laws is discussed in this report. The Grove decision, it is argued, has made it possible for institutions to discriminate in programs which do not receive direct Federal aid. As a result, civil rights and affirmative action laws have become very difficult to enforce. First, the report outlines the following effects of the decision: (1) Federal audits or compliance reviews of institutions receiving tax dollars have been reduced or sharply limited; (2) civil rights agencies now investigate discrimination complaints only when Federal money is tied directly to the specific program or department of the institution in which the alleged discrimination took place; (3) compliance plans to end discrimination which were already in place before the Supreme Court ruling are now being revoked; (4) administration law judges are dismissing cases in which institutions refuse to…

Richter, Melissa Lewis; Trachtenberg, Francine Zorn (1976). Women and Career Options. Expanding Career Opportunities for Women in Higher Education. During the past several years, the place of women in American life has emerged as an issue of increasing importance and visibility. However, even though the struggle for women's rights has yielded considerable gains and affirmative action plans have served to accelerate the integration of women into the work force, the goal of full and equal opportunity for women is far from being an accomplished reality. Despite the magnitude of the problem, most colleges and universities have done relatively little to serve the particular needs of women undergraduates in this era of changing role perceptions. Similarly, women faculty are subject to the same problems that face most women professionals. In response to the perceived need to develop support services for undergraduate women interested in pursuing careers in nontraditional fields, to stimulate the integration of women faculty members into the university decision-making process, and to determine the impact of the collegiate environment…

Lincoln, Yvonna S.; Stanley, Christine A. (2005). Cross-Race Faculty Mentoring. Change, v37 n2 p44 Mar-Apr. There are many synonyms for the word \mentor\: coach, guide, role model, peer advisor, and sponsor, among others. The plethora of terms would suggest that we know something about this role, but most of the research on mentoring has been conducted in business and industry rather than in education. In fact, junior and senior faculty and administrators alike are often uncertain about how to foster effective mentoring relationships. This is especially true when faculty of color are recruited to predominantly white colleges and universities. Recent attacks on affirmative action have created a nationwide institutional paralysis when it comes to recruiting and retaining faculty of color. In comparison to majority faculty, the numbers of faculty of color in higher education remain disproportionately low. Mentoring is an important strategy for retaining these faculty members. There is nothing more isolating and alienating than to be the first or only person of one's race and/or ethnicity to…

Slark, Julie; And Others (1993). Educational Equity and Inclusion: An Equity Atlas. RSC Study Report. A study was conducted at Rancho Santiago College (RSC) District campuses to determine the extent to which the college provides a welcoming, receptive, inclusive, friendly, and non-hostile environment for students of special groups, including minority students, older students, women students, and disabled students. Five areas of study related to an equitable campus climate were identified, including College and Community, Student Life and Comfort, Student Performance and Retention, Curriculum and Pedagogy, and Faculty and Staff. Questionnaires were administered to a random sample of RSC students, to all staff and full-time faculty, and to high school seniors and staff in RSC's service area. In addition, interviews were conducted with RSC faculty and staff. Following an introduction, this report presents five detailed sections corresponding to the five areas of study. The first section provides analysis of responses to equity questionnaires completed by RSC faculty and students, and… [PDF]

(1981). On Campus with Women, Number 30. News items on the status and education of women are presented. Among the items pertaining to employment are the following: a survey of Harvard University graduates revealed that women had lower salaries and fewer professional responsibilities than the male graduates; and a Department of Labor report showed women college graduates are more likely to hold clerical positions, and less likely to have managerial status than their male colleagues. Publications pertaining to women's employment are briefly reviewed. Among the sexual harassment cases that are noted are the following: a case in which a professor sued five women who charged him with sexual harassment; and a ruling by the U.S. Court of Appeals at Washington, D.C., that permits a woman to sue her employer to stop sexual harassment on the job without having to prove that she resisted and lost her job as a result. Among the other types of court cases are: the quality-of-pension issues; the question of whether Title IX covers…

R. Lawrence Purdy (2023). Our Service Academies Must Discard Race-Based Admissions. Academic Questions, v36 n4 p33-40. In "Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. President and Fellows of Harvard College ("SFFA")," the United States Supreme Court revisited an issue that had been litigated before it twenty years earlier. In two separate cases brought against the University of Michigan, the issue was whether it was a violation of the Constitution and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 for the university to use "race" as a factor in student admissions. On June 23, 2003, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, writing for a 5-4 majority in "Grutter v. Bollinger," declared that it was not. For the past two decades, according to the author, relying on Justice O'Connor's deeply-flawed reasoning in "Grutter" schools across the country, including service academies, have openly used race to benefit certain applicants and to racially discriminate against others. Fast forward twenty years, according to the author, and they remain perplexed by the continuing support for… [Direct]

(1992). The Basic Agenda: Policy Directions and Priorities for the Nineties (Revised July 1992). Draft. Each year, the Board of Governors of the California Community Colleges (CCC) develops and adopts a Basic Agenda that sets forth current priorities for the 107-college system. Guided by emerging trends and issues, this Basic Agenda constitutes the Board of Governor's long-range planning document for the 1990's. The report's preface and introduction describe the principal tasks of the CCC for the coming decade, which include maintaining the mission of the CCC; providing Californians, particularly those traditionally underrepresented in higher education and the workplace, with access to quality programs in transfer and career education, and in basic skills and English as a Second Language (ESL); providing effective leadership to the CCC through shared governance and management; helping the colleges become more cost effective; and maintaining quality instruction and student support services. The following five sections of the report examine in greater detail these aspects of mission;… [PDF]

Patrick, John J. (1994). The Young Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. This book, intended for juveniles and young students, provides an encyclopedic collection of reference information about the U.S. Supreme Court. The articles are arranged alphabetically to aid in looking up words, ideas, or names. Lists of "see also" entries are located at the end of articles to refer the reader to related subjects. The book includes biographical sketches of all 107 justices of the Supreme Court, detailed discussions of 100 of the most historically significant cases decided by the Supreme Court, articles that define and discuss concepts central to the meaning of constitutionalism in the United States and decision-making by the court, legal terms and phrases associated with the Court's operation, procedures and practices in the daily operations of the court, essays on key topics and issues in U.S. constitutional law, excerpts from notable Supreme Court opinions, and tables of milestone cases in the development of constitutional law. Essays on current…

Malave, Lilliam M., Ed. (1988). Theory, Research, and Applications: Selected Papers from the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Bilingual Education (16th, Denver, Colorado, March 30-April 3, 1987). Papers in this volume include the following: "The Theoretical Framework of Jim Cummins: A Review and Critique"; "The Development of Bilingual Behavior"; "Effective Schools Research and Language Instruction Programs"; "Reading and Writing Instruction in Three Bilingual Education Programs in Connecticut"; "Instructional Discourse in an Effective Kindergarten Classroom: A Case Study"; "Ecobehavioral Variables within a Classroom with Limited-English Proficient Students"; "Creative Reading: A Relevant Methodology for Language Minority Children"; "Teachers' Perceptions of Errors in Second Language Learning and Acquisition"; "Testing the Transfer Paradigm in Second Language Learning: The Case of Spelling Skills"; "Conducting and Evaluating Oral Tests in the Second Language Classroom";"The Competency Testing Mine Field: Validation, Legal and Ethical Issues with Implications for… [PDF]

(1990). Strategic Master Planning Document, 1990. Developed at Lansing Community College (LCC) through a charrette process, this strategic master plan provides specific directions for action, while retaining room for human judgment in moving toward the college's goals. The seven sections of the plan focus on strategic planning goals, including charrette recommendations, rationales, and strategies within each priority level for action. The planning goals relate to: (1) strengthening instruction with respect to basic skills assessment, cross-curricular competencies, common core of courses, duplication of courses, the Academic Affairs Office, exit competencies, and instructional design, technology, and support; (2) strengthening student services in the areas of computer-based student services, counseling, equal access to services, student support services, child and dependent care, student minority affairs, handicapped and tutorial services, health care activities, and student activities; (3) strengthening the college's financial…

Cook, Lauraine (1991). Comprehensive Planning Resource Document, 1990-91, for the Kern Community College District. This compilation of resources for district planning in 1990-91 provides an overview of demographic, personnel, financial, facilities, and curriculum issues for the Kern Community College District (California) and its member institutions, Bakersfield, Cerro Coso, and Porterville colleges. The 10 sections of the document cover: (1) General Information, including a description of the district planning process; the text of the California Community Colleges Basic Agenda for 1990-91; and philosophy, mission, and goals statements; (2) External Characteristics, including population, labor force, and high school enrollment statistics and projections; (3) Internal Evaluation, including program evaluation and accreditation procedures; (4) Instructional Services, including an inventory of approved programs, academic calendars, and vocational education offerings and needs; (5) Student Support Services, including plans for matriculation, assessment, Extended Opportunity Programs and Services, and…

Raines, Max R.; And Others (1989). Thinking Together about the New Century in Michigan Higher Education. Project 90: A Priority Assessment from Professors of Higher Education within the Education Administration Department of the College of Education, Michigan State University, 1987-1989. Purpose of Michigan State University's Project 90 Priority Assessment was to extract, synthesize, and delineate a series of potential initiatives for public higher education in Michigan that reflect the key proposals of recent state and national studies. The study sought to compare the priorities of state legislators and officials with those of presidents, chief academic officers, and board chairs of Michigan community colleges and universities. In addition, the study sought to determine the major reasons for the selection of the top priorities and anticipated problems associated with them. Several groups were asked to assign priority to 21 initiatives, including 87 presidents, academic officers, and board chairs from community colleges; 43 members of those groups from universities; 100 members of the State House of Representatives; 48 members of the State Senate; and 11 staff members from the Department of Public Instruction. Study findings, based on responses from 55% of the… [PDF]

Stetson, Nancy E. (1990). Collegial Governance at College of Marin: A Governmental Model. Management Report 1989-90/2. The College of Marin has adopted a model of collegial governance that involves the entire campus community in recommending policies and procedures that determine the rules by which employees and students live. The model, which was designed by a task force representing faculty, staff, and students, is based on the U.S. Government model of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Its major components are an Academic Senate, a Classified Senate, a Student Senate, and a Senate Executive Board. Each of the three Senates has two major roles: (1) to review and recommend District policies and College procedures; and (2) to recommend appointments from its membership to College governance committees. The Senate Executive Board is composed of an equal number of representatives from each of the three Senates. Proposals for new or changed policies or procedures travel through a number of committees before reaching the Senate Executive Board (comparable to a legislative conference… [PDF]

Mael, Phyllis (1989). Transforming the Curriculum for Equity and Excellence. With the changing demographics in college populations, educators can no longer offer students a curriculum that denies the very existence of women and minorities. Yet this is precisely what occurs in the traditional or womanless curriculum. If one recognizes the limitations of a curriculum that accepts male experience as universal, one is ready to begin curriculum transformation. A questionnaire was sent to all community college humanities departments in an attempt to ascertain what faculty were doing to balance their humanities courses for gender and how they were doing it. Over 250 responses from more than 70 different colleges were received. Based on these responses, the following suggestions are offered to faculty interested in transforming their humanities courses: (1) start wherever colleagues and institutions feel most comfortable (usually this means beginning to incorporate more works by women or material that includes women's experiences); (2) in classes where instructors…

Hutchins, Sally, Ed. (1981). Trustee Quarterly: Volume 5, Numbers 1-4, 1980-1981. Trustee Quarterly, v5 n1-4 1980-81. These four issues of \Trustee Quarterly\ present 31 articles on topics of concern to community college trustees, including finance, administration, and mission. Specific articles cover: (1) the board chair's political role (E. M. Duffy); (2) evaluation and goal setting (M. Hays); (3) collective bargaining (K. L. Hunt and W. Hamilton); (4) long- and short-range planning (D. B. Lake); (5) trustee role in presidential evaluations (J. Lombardi); (6) changes facing community colleges (S. E. Marsee); (7) trustee orientation (P. McGlashan); (8) adult literacy and the community college (N. M. Ellison); (9) board self-evaluation (M. M. Harris); (10) relations with the federal government (C. M. Mathias); (11) power and politics of state educational policy (B. Roberts); (12) legal liabilities of the trustee (R. E. Sechler); (13) international education (B. F. Stewart); (14) competing with industry for faculty (H. A. Tuck); (15) trustee responsibilities (A. R. Christensen); (16) board/president…

Millard, Richard M. (1978). The State Role–Beyond Bakke. Outcomes of the Bakke decision and the role of the state in developing an effective post-Bakke agenda are addressed. While the Supreme Court rejected the doctrine of complete racial neutrality in admissions decisions, there is ambiguity in the decision that could be used to rationalize complacency and justification of the status quo, doing away with quotas and two-tracks and submitting nothing in their place, or weakening programs designed to support minority students with potential for professional and graduate work. Advantages of the decision include directing attention to the issue of underrepresentation of minorities in higher education and in responsible positions in American society. It is suggested that state boards, commissions, or departments of higher education have played or have the capacity for playing significant roles in expansion of access, including providing guidance in areas related to access such as admissions standards and student aid. An agenda for state higher… [PDF]

Flax, Jane (1978). A Materialist Theory of Women's Status. The paper examines three factors–reproduction, production, and psychodynamics–which contribute to maintaining an inferior image of women in a capitalistic society. It also offers suggestions for changing these social structures so that they will not relegate women to inferior social status. In a capitalistic society production is based on commodities, which are defined as objects which have exchange value in the market place. Although the position of women as nurturers is highly valued socially, women do not gain the esteem and power which comes from the world of commodities. Also, the social organization of capitalism reinforces the division between nurturance (female) and authority (male). In addition, the tasks of reproduction and socialization of children also divide women and men into tasks of nurturance and authority. This duality is then reflected in the work which women do outside the home. When women display behavior inappropriate to their roles as nurturing females, they…

Hixson, Adalyn, Ed. (2001). The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education, 2000-2001. Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education, v11 n1-25 2000-2001. This document consists of all 25 issues of Volume 11 of "The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education," a biweekly journal that addresses issues in higher education for Hispanic Americans. Each issue contains several feature articles, a policy update column called "Outlook on Washington," a description of an exemplary program, and a sample student success story. Among topics addressed by feature articles in each issue are: (1) college admissions and the diversity plan of the University of Wisconsin; (2) education and the new Hispanic heritage; (3) Latin American jurists and legal education; (4) bilingual education and academic achievement; (5) Hispanic American achievement, Internet programs, and racial tensions; (6) Hispanic Americans in sports, science, and sociology; (7) Hispanic Americans at the City University of New York; (8) student financial aid and paying for college; (9) international education and the Latino educational agenda; (10) achievement of Hispanic… [PDF]

Cole, Eddie R. (2020). Race at the Top: Historical Insights on the College Presidency and Racial Inequities. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, v52 n2 p17-21. College presidents are important administrators who are frequently expected to address the public when racism occurs on college campuses. However, journalists and administrators often react to events and implement initiatives without understanding the broader context surrounding racial incidents. On historically White campuses, college presidents' frequent failure to acknowledge the past has become a standard operating procedure. This is unfortunate because, as history demonstrates, college presidents have the influence to shape policies and practices. Therefore, they are role models, knowingly or unknowingly, for how to move forward a real equity and social justice agenda. The views of the president–whose voice is arguably seen as a proxy for the stance of the university–are critical to showing that institutions' leaders will not tolerate racism. The college presidency is a particularly important administrative role to study historically because it offers new perspective on, and… [Direct]

Sailer, John D. (2022). The Anatomy of a Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Takeover: A Case Study of the University of Tennessee. National Association of Scholars This report offers analysis of the University of Tennessee's Diversity Action Plans. Every academic college and every Vice-Chancellor Unit on campus issued plans. True to Chancellor Donde Plowman's vision, these colleges and units propose extensive and ideologically-charged reforms. The National Association of Scholars finds in these plans nothing short of a blueprint for an institutional overhaul–the anatomy of a diversity, equity, and inclusion takeover. Such a takeover will have obvious implications for education at the University of Tennessee. The National Association of Scholars believes that true education will erode and indoctrination will flourish. These plans, moreover, reveal in extensive detail what an exhaustive diversity, equity, and inclusion program looks like. Thus the report provides a case study in the rolling revolution under way in academia…. [PDF]

(2023). Academic Freedom and Tenure: Indiana University Northwest. American Association of University Professors This report addresses the actions taken in September 2021 by the administration of Indiana University Northwest that led to the dismissal and revocation of tenure of Dr. Mark McPhail. The investigating committee found that IUN violated several AAUP-recommended standards of academic due process and the protection of intramural speech in the dismissal of Dr. McPhail, without any appropriate proceeding or disciplinary process. Furthermore, the report concludes that the behavioral complaints brought against Dr. McPhail that resulted in his termination relied on "racist tropes of incompetent, angry, and physically violent Black men" without any credible basis in truth, and that the general "conditions for academic governance at Indiana University Northwest can therefore only be described as unsound." [The text of this report was written in the first instance by the investigating committee.]… [PDF]

(1998). Education Policy. IDRA Focus. IDRA Newsletter, v25 n10 Nov-Dec. This theme issue includes five articles that focus on educational policy in the Texas legislature in relation to student retention, Internet access, and sexual harassment. "1999 Texas Legislative Session–End of an Era?" (Albert Cortez, Maria Robledo Montecel) examines educational equity issues facing legislators: school funding, including the facilities allotment, funding formulas, and special program allotments; disciplinary alternative education programs; reporting of student dropout rates; reading initiatives; public money for private schooling; and affirmative action in higher education. "Retention Fails, but Continues To Be Promoted" (Pam McCollum) reviews national and state histories of retention policies, including social promotion versus in-grade retention, the failures and costs of social promotion, summer schools, transitional schools, research on retention, and alternatives to retention. "The E-Rate and the Battle for Equity in Educational… [PDF]