Rothaus, Elyse, Ed.; Zachowski, Matt, Ed. (1977). Rights in Conflict; A Report on the Annual Conference of the National Coalition Against Censorship (2nd, New York City, February 16, 1977). This report details the proceedings of the second annual conference of the National Coalition Against Censorship, which was held in New York City on 16 February 1977. Among the events covered is a panel discussion of possible limitations on free speech, conducted by four experts in the field of communicatons (Peggy Charren, president of Action for Children's Television; Nat Hentoff, "Village Voice" columnist; John O'Connor, "New York Times" television critic; and Harriet Pilpel, communications lawyer). The results of group discussions which followed are summarized, as are two other sessions: the purpose and role of the National Coalition Against Censorship and arguments for regulation of "reverse censorship," a covert form of sex, race, and ethnic stereotyping. Finally, the outcome of a plenary discussion is described and a list of conference participants is given. (KS)… [PDF]

Gouran, Dennis S. (1974). Guidelines for the Analysis of Responsibility in Governmental Communication. This paper discusses specific issues involving governmental conduct in communication with the public, outlines a set of conditions that frequently stimulate social interest in governmental responsibility, and develops a corresponding set of guidelines for use in the evaluation of instances of questionable governmental conduct in communication. There are seven areas of activity in which the behavior of governmental officials historically has been subject to possible indictment as irresponsible: falsification of information released to the public, classification of documents, attempts to manage the release of news, intimidation of the news media, interference with exercise of free speech, acts of political espionage, and communication disguised as something it is not. Each of the seven areas of activity is discussed at length and for each a guideline is provided which is designed to aid in the recognition of irresponsible behavior by government officials. (RB)… [PDF]

Arellano, Sonya I.; Draper, Jean E. (1970). Relationship Between Musical Aptitudes and Second-Language Learning. Final Report. This study explores the relationships between a child's discriminatory abilities in the areas of pitch, intensity, rhythm, timbre, and tonal memory and his capacity to comprehend and speak the Spanish language. The Spanish accent is analyzed on the basis of intonation, stress, sinalepha, and phone production. These factors were tested both in isolated words and on contextual material intended to approximate the conditions of free speech. Comprehension was evaluated by means of an objective, multiple-choice listening test. The results of the investigation indicate a strong relationship between discriminatory musical abilities in pitch, intensity, rhythm, timbre, and tonal memory and in achievement of a Spanish accent. The methods, findings and analysis, and discussions and conclusions of the experiment are described in this report. Frequent use is made of statistical data in numerous tables. A bibliography and sample test materials are provided. (Author/RL)… [PDF]

Cronn-Mills, Daniel (1998). Framing the First Amendment in a Debate Format. An assignment focuses on introducing students to the complexities involved in rendering a decision concerning the First Amendment to the Constitution. During the first week of classes, students are asked to read the introductory sections to the topic-specific chapters in "Freedom of Speech in the Marketplace of Ideas" by Fraleigh and Truman, which include: incitement to illegal conduct; national security; fighting words; hate speech; defamation of character; obscenity; time, place, and manner restrictions; government-subsidized speech; and technology issues. Students rank in order the topics they found most interesting; they are then divided into two groups, and each is assigned either the pro or con of a specific free-speech related incident. Each group researches their topic for 6-8 weeks. Debates are held in front of the rest of the class. (A class syllabus is appended.) (CR)… [PDF]

Badley, Graham (2005). Against Fundamentalism, for Democracy: Towards a Pedagogy of Tolerance in Higher Education. Teaching in Higher Education, v10 n4 p407-419 Oct. Fundamentalism and democracy are presented as opposing forces in a world in conflict. Fundamentalism is described both as a threat to democracy itself and also to supposedly democratic institutions such as the university. First, fundamentalism is defined in its various guises: Christian, Islamic and economic. Each of these forms is pernicious in its influence on democracy and the university. Second, despite the contested nature of the concept, a case is made for democracy as a set of values, processes and institutions which make individual and social life both bearable and interesting. Democracy with its belief in free speech, dissent and scepticism is contrasted with fundamentalism and its unchallengeable truths. Third, reasonableness and tolerance are promoted as vital aspects of a pedagogy for higher education in order to counter the fundamentalist threat. This does not require the university to tolerate the intolerant…. [Direct]

Taylor, Kelley R. (2010). Split Decisions. Principal Leadership, v10 n9 p8-10 May. On February 18, 2010, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 3rd Circuit (covering Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and the Virgin Islands) handed down rulings in two different cases involving regulation of student speech when that speech takes place online and off campus. The rulings–one that favored the school district defendant and the other that favored the student plaintiff–have added to existing confusion over whether schools may legally regulate student speech when such speech takes place online, but off campus. In 2005, using his grandmother's computer during nonschool hours, a high school student created a fake Internet profile of his principal on the social networking site MySpace. The parody, which contained a real photo of the principal, contained answers to profile questions that were written by the student in such a way as to mock the principal. Later that year during an investigation, the student admitted to creating the profile and apologized to school officials both… [Direct]

Underwood, Julie (2004). Legal Protections Gay Students Must Receive. Education Digest: Essential Readings Condensed for Quick Review, v70 n4 p16-26 Dec. This article discusses practical guidance on schools' legal rights and responsibilities with respect to students, programs, and curriculum. Like all other individuals, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) students are guaranteed equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution and free speech and association under the First Amendment. Like other student clubs, LGBT-related student groups are guaranteed equal treatment and access under the Equal Access Act (1984). In this article, the author emphasizes that it is best to seek legal advice either from district legal counsel, the state education department, or state professional organization to determine the specific legal authority in one's jurisdiction. Among other things, she discusses some things involving legal responsibilities when forming Gay-Straight Alliance, dress codes that unfairly restrict students' "gender identity" or "gender expression," as well as students harassed over… [Direct]

Olson, Lyle D.; And Others (1993). A Paradigm for State High School Press Freedom Laws. To assist journalism educators and legislators who wish to initiate passage of anti-Hazelwood laws, this paper reports on the first stage of a research project on nationwide efforts at getting state legislation passed to override the 1988 Supreme Court Hazelwood School District vs. Kuhlmeier decision. The laws of five states (Massachusetts, California, Colorado, Kansas, and Iowa) which have been successful in passing legislation to override the l988 Hazelwood decision are compared and contrasted in the paper. The paper also offers a 1-page paradigm that summarizes the features of each law. Future research is called for that would examine data from the five states that have passed such laws to determine if they have indeed reduced the incidence of student press censorship. An appendix provides the complete text of all enacted student free speech legislation and a copy of the Student Press Law Center Model Legislation. (NH)… [PDF]

Bernstein, Barbara; And Others (1989). Understanding Civil Liberties: A Guide for the Perplexed. The Nassau Chapter of the New York Civil Liberties Union (NYCLU) is a state affiliate of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), a national, non-profit, non-partisan organization that defends civil liberties in and out of the courtroom. The goal of the group is the advancement of civil liberties according to strict interpretation of the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. This handbook is designed to answer questions about constitutional rights and how these rights apply to the daily lives of citizens. Questions included in the handbook are those actually submitted to the NYCLU from the public and include: (1) why isn't pornography illegal? (2) why does the ACLU defend free speech for racists and totalitarians? (3) do student editors have freedom of the press? and (4) why should someone be denied a job because he or she is white? (NL)…

(1985). John Peter Zenger and the Freedom of the Press: 250th Anniversary, 1735-1985. This booklet accompanies the New York State Library exhibit of material related to the trial of John Peter Zenger. This 1735 trial established the legal precedent giving juries the power to decide libel suits. Labeled "the germ of American freedom," the trial was an important step in the development of American concepts of free speech and a free press. Complementing the exhibit and suitable for use in schools, this booklet includes a reprint of an article from the New York State Museum's publication "Naho" that gives an explanation of the trial, a bibliography of books and articles about the trial, information about trial proceeding documents held by the State Library, a summary of manuscript and archival sources, an explanation of the New York State Newspaper project that seeks to preserve the American heritage through newspaper conservation, and an overview of the State Library Services. (Author/IS)…

Anapol, Malthon M. (1975). The Common Law Threesome: Libel, Slander, and Invasion of Privacy. Unlike most of the regulatory constraints which have impact on the media, libel, slander, and invasion of privacy are common law concepts developed from the precedents of previous court decisions and from reasoning employed in the written judicial opinions of appellate courts. Since common law is thus both traditional in nature and subject to rapid changes, the courts' handling of these concepts in relation to the media is complex, as may be seen in several specific court cases. Basically, the American system protects individuals who might be seriously damaged by irresponsible abuse of the first amendment freedoms (free speech and free press). That is, you can say it, print it, or broadcast it, but you must be prepared to face the consequences of your actions. No society has developed a better system in terms of freedom with responsibility for the media and protection for the individual. (JM)… [PDF]

Eyster, Ira M. (1971). A Guide for Improving Teacher Education in Human Rights. This guide discusses the need for and ways of implementing human and civil rights education in the teacher education program and in the public schools. One section analyzes specific rights, such as equality of opportunity, free speech, and freedom of assembly, and lists some typical behaviors of institutions–both colleges and public schools–which exemplify a commitment to rights or which appear to be a violation of them. Another short section lists democratic educational processes, such as discussion and cooperative planning, and points suggestions for incorporating human and civil rights education into the teacher education program–both preservice and inservice. Suggestions for the preservice program include discussion of content, activities, timing, and ways of incorporating this content into existing education courses. The section on inservice education includes a sample schedule for a 2-day conference and a sample list of objectives and activities for a 1-week workshop. (RT)… [PDF]

Lustig, Jeff (2004). The Mixed Legacy of Clark Kerr: A Personal View. Academe, v90 n4 p51-53 Jul-Aug. The death of famed educator Clark Kerr last December evoked tributes and testimonials everywhere from the "New York Times" to local faculty bulletins. Architect of California's famous Master Plan of 1960, skilled labor mediator, first president of the University of California system, bete noir of the early student movement, and chair of the distinguished Carnegie Commission on the Future of Higher Education, Kerr captured the diverse impulses of his times with rare thoroughness while clearly defining the key questions facing American higher education. This article is offered by the author as one step toward a faculty perspective on Kerr's legacy from someone who has long been interested in his trajectory–from his brilliant, early economic articles, through his leadership of the University of California (and authorization of the author's arrest during the free speech movement), up to his late recognition of the growing crisis of his cherished university….

Zirkel, Perry, Ed. (1994). Case Citations 1994. Sixteenth Series (How Free Is Speech in the Schools?). Case citations from federal and state court decisions concerning freedom of speech in schools are organized in five major sections with brief summaries of relevant cases in subcategories followed by a table of cases cited. The major sections are as follows: (1) "Employees' Freedom of Expression: Academic Issues" (Virginia Davis Nordin); (2) "Employees' Freedom of Expression: Non-Academic Issues" (Joseph M. Wilson); (3) "Student Expression: Non-Religious Issues" (Perry A. Zirkel); (4) Student Expression: Religious Issues" (Richard Fossey); and (5) "First Amendment Freedom of Expression: Access to Schools by Outside Individuals or Groups" (Gail Sorenson). (MLF)…

Rallo, Curt; Roessing, Lesley J. (2006). Teacher to Teacher: What Text Have You Found Most Successful with Your Students?. English Journal, v95 n3 p16-17 Jan. \Teacher to Teacher\ provides a forum for teachers to share ideas, materials, and activities. In this article, the first teacher describes the effects the well-known novel \Bleachers\ (John Grisham, New York: Doubleday, 2003) had on a ninth-grade english class. The novel bought to life the high school culture that the students found challenging. The novel raises sensitive issues, including self-worth, identity, relationships, forgiveness, and tolerance. This compelling novel allowed high school students to explore themes and issues they struggled with daily. Teaching the text through literature circles proved to be the appropriate choice, and the novel proved to be a provocative piece of literature that connected with the students. The second teacher talks about the influence the novel \Haroun and the Sea of Stories\ (Salman Rushdie, New York: Granta, 1990) had on eighth-grade students' examination of free-speech. The teacher explained \All that we teach about good writing is… [Direct]

Rahdert, Mark C. (2007). The Roberts Court and Academic Freedom. Chronicle of Higher Education, v53 n47 pB16 Jul. Since President Bush named Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. and Justice Samuel A. Alito Jr. to the Supreme Court, speculation has run high as to where the new court may be headed. Citing three recent cases ("Morse v. Frederick", "Rumsfeld v. Forum for Academic and Institutional Rights, Inc." and "Garcetti v. Ceballos"), Rahdert expresses concern that current court decisions are limiting free speech in ways that could adversely affect higher education. The author views these decisions as a retraction of constitutional protection for academic debate and inquiry, maintaining that the logic of the arguments support punishing student speech that conflicts with important institutional values, punishing faculty speech that occurs in the course of employment, and punishing the university itself if it fails to comply with external commands regarding the conduct of its auxiliary activities. In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, public reaction to the… [Direct]

(1987). Government by the People, Government upon the People. A Comparison of Democratic and Undemocratic Forms of Government: The U.S. and the U.S.S.R. The goals of this learning packet are to: (1) increase understanding of the Soviet system; (2) enhance appreciation of U.S. constitutionally guaranteed rights; and (3) inform students of how governmental policies of both nations are reflected in the lives of ordinary people. The 17 reproducible lessons are designed to present: (1) the philosophy and structure of government; (2) the rights of citizens; and (3) with the work and home life of ordinary Soviet and U.S. people. In lessons 1-3, students define and distinguish between the political and economic systems of the United States and the Soviet Union. In lessons 4-9, students compare the rights to free speech, free press, fair trial, suitable punishment for crimes, free worship, and free movement in the United States and the Soviet Union. Students also analyze how government policies are reflected in the lives of contemporary Soviet dissidents and refuseniks, and they will study the U.S. judicial and political systems. In lessons…

Rebell, Michael A. (2011). Providing Comprehensive Educational Opportunity to Low Income Students. Part 1: A Legal Framework. Campaign for Educational Equity, Teachers College, Columbia University Raising academic standards and eliminating achievement gaps between advantaged and disadvantaged students are America's prime national educational goals. Current federal and state policies, however, largely ignore the fact that the childhood poverty rate in the United States is 21%, the highest in the industrialized world, and that poverty substantially impedes these children's ability to learn and to succeed in school. In addition to important school-based educational resources like effective teaching, reasonable class sizes, and up-to-date learning materials, these children need additional comprehensive services, specifically, early childhood, health, after-school and other extended learning opportunities, and family supports. These services can be provided cost-effectively, and it is vital not only to children's welfare, but also to the country's democratic future and continued economic competitiveness in the global marketplace that such comprehensive services be provided on a… [PDF]

(1998). Legislative Proposals To Protect Children from Inappropriate Materials on the Internet. Hearing on H.R. 3783, H.R. 774, H.R. 1180, H.R. 1964, H.R. 3177, and H.R. 3442 before the Subcommittee on Telecommunications, Trade, and Consumer Protection of the Committee on Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fifth Congress, Second Session. This hearing addresses legislative proposals to protect children from inappropriate materials on the Internet. Among the issues discussed are federal investments and information access, defining standards for protection, child pornography and marketing to children, filtering technology and adult verification services, and freedom of speech. Included are the statements of: Laith Paul Alsarraf, President and Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Cybernet Ventures, Inc.; John Bastian, CEO, Security Software Systems, Inc.; Jerry Berman, Director, Center for Democracy and Technology; Dan Coats, U.S. Senator from Indiana; Jeffrey J. Douglas, Executive Director, Free Speech Coalition; Bob Franks, Representative from New Jersey; Agnes M. Griffen, Director, TucsonPima Public Library; Ernest J. Istook, Representative from Oklahoma; Andrew L. Kupser, CEO, Northwest Internet Services, LLC; Mary Anne Layden, Center for Cognitive Therapy, Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania; Lawrence… [PDF]

Christian, Donna (1986). American English Speech Recordings: A Guide to Collections. A directory of collections of audio recordings of varieties of American English spoken in North America and including English-based creoles contains information about collections of any size, classified according to the primary state in the U.S. represented by the speakers in the sample and cross-referenced when more than one state is represented in the collection. Collections covering areas outside the United States are grouped separately, and include the Bahamas, Canada, Central America, Puerto Rico, England, and world-wide sources. The data, based on a survey, include information on each collection's location, institutional affiliation, content, characteristics of the sample, number of subjects recorded, number of hours recorded, dates and locations of taping, average length of the samples, contexts (free speech with or without interviewer, directed interview, data elicitation, reading, or other), predominant or outstanding features of the content, subject or technical… [PDF]

Connolly, Mary V. (1997). Ethical Issues Involving the Internet. The Internet is a network of networks, sharing the same protocol and linking universities, research communities, businesses, and individuals world wide. In this new global information infrastructure, all citizens need to understand the power and pitfalls of the technology in order to function as responsible members. This paper discusses issues surrounding the Internet involving privacy, copyright and intellectual property rights, electronic speech, and access to the Internet. The Internet allows an unprecedented invasion of personal privacy, which has ramifications for both commercial organizations and individuals. The cyberspace environment allows the free flow of information to all citizens in ways never before possible, however, provides little protection for owners of information who have a right to be compensated and credited for their work. The issues of free speech and access have global implications. All students should have an awareness of the power of the technology and an… [PDF]

Molek, Carol (1992). National Issues Forums in an ABE Setting. Final Report. National Issues Forums (NIFs) were conducted for adult basic education (ABE) students in a Pennsylvania adult education and job training center. The forums provide a process of sharing thoughts and opinions about areas of pressing national concerns in an open exchange of everyone's opinion. After instructors participated in NIFs, they developed a curriculum and organized two forums aimed at including at least 10 ABE students. The two forums covered the boundaries of free speech and the United States' role in the world. Seventeen ABE students participated in the forums along with nonstudents. The activity increased the higher-level thinking skills of the ABE students and enhanced their self-esteem and empowerment. Student reactions were positive. (The document includes 12 appendixes of project materials that contain the following: a summary of NIF activities for ABE students, suggested resources, pre- and post-forum ballot, news article, student questionnaire, publicity, NIF… [PDF]

Lumsden, Linda (1992). Sticks and Stones: Why First Amendment Absolutism Fails When Applied to Campus Harassment Codes. This paper analyzes how absolutist arguments against campus harassment codes violate the spirit of the first amendment, examining in particular the United States Supreme Court ruling in "RAV v. St. Paul." The paper begins by tracing the current development of first amendment doctrine, analyzing its inadequacy in the campus hate speech debate. Next, the paper examines 22 law-review articles written in 1990-91 on campus codes, analyzing the authors' various proposals for reconciling constitutional requirements for free speech and equal protection on campuses, and especially noting the philosophy underlying the authors' recommendations for limiting hate speech. The paper shows that most commentators approved of speech codes restricting one-on-one encounters aimed at intimidating individuals because of their race, sex or other suspect category, in contrast to the majority ruling in RAV. Finally, the paper attempts to analyze the RAV ruling's impact on campus speech codes and… [PDF]

(2004). Speech Recognition: A World of Opportunities. PACER Center Speech recognition technology helps people with disabilities interact with computers more easily. People with motor limitations, who cannot use a standard keyboard and mouse, can use their voices to navigate the computer and create documents. The technology is also useful to people with learning disabilities who experience difficulty with spelling and writing. Some individuals with speech impairments may use speech recognition as a therapeutic tool to improve vocal quality. People with overuse or repetitive stress injuries also benefit from using speech recognition to operate their computers hands free. Speech recognition technology has great potential to provide people with disabilities greater access to computers people with disabilities greater access to computers and a world of opportunities. This document covers related topics such as: What speech recognition is, how it works, who uses it, selecting the right system, and making it work. A brief list of useful web sites is also…

Imber, Michael; van Geel, Tyll (2000). Education Law. Second Edition. This second edition of this reference guide provides a survey of some of the major legal problems that confront policymakers and school administrators. It contains landmark cases and other cases that best illustrate major principles of education law, along with summaries, discussions, and analyses of the cases. Edited cases are integrated into analysis of legal issues to make the text more understandable for those not in the legal profession. Chapter titles reflect the scope and topics of the book: (1) \Understanding Education Law\; (2) \Compulsory Education\; (3) \Curriculum\; (4) \Student Free Speech Rights\; (5) \Student Discipline\; (6) \Equal Educational Opportunity: Race and Gender\; (7) \Students with Special Needs\; (8) \School Finance\; (9) \Federal Constitutional and Statutory Rights of School Employees\; (10) \Teacher Employment\; (11) \Collective Bargaining, Unions, and Teacher Contracts\; and (12) \Torts.\ It also contains parts of the U.S. Constitution that pertain to…

Croddy, Marshall; Degelman, Charles; Hayes, Bill; Marty, Carlton (1995). Terrorism in America. A series of nine lessons that can be used in any order, this booklet is intended to help teachers and students discuss and analyze the issue of terrorism in the United States. The lessons cover a range of important issues appropriate for social studies classes, and contain readings, discussion questions, and interactive activities. The first lesson presents an overview of the Oklahoma City (Oklahoma) bombing and corresponding issues. The next seven lessons are grouped into three issue areas: responses to terrorism, free speech issues, and the prevalence of conspiracy theories in U.S. society. The final lesson, appropriate for use by teachers in all curriculum areas, models a civic participation process that encourages students to take a hands-on approach to addressing community problems. The materials invite student participation in a variety of activities such as directed discussions, small groups, simulations, role playing, and interaction with outside resource persons. Student… [PDF]

Mullin, Dorothy Imrich (1996). The First Amendment and the Web: The Internet Porn Panic and Restricting Indecency in Cyberspace. In the wake of the Communications Decency Act of 1996, discussions have raged both online and in the press about free speech, online pornography, and the protection of children. This paper discusses the legal and social science issues surrounding content regulation of the World Wide Web and the Internet as a whole, with an emphasis on the indecency ban. The paper uses recent literature to address concerns that have led to legislation, including: (1) the perceived pervasiveness of online pornography (the "porn panic"); (2) the perceived intrusiveness of online communication and its accessibility to children and adolescents; and (3) the potential for societal "harms" to children or adults following exposure to online indecency. In each section, the role of social science, both in fueling the porn panic and in potentially informing the policy debate, and the broad First Amendment implications of applying broadcast regulation standards to online communication are… [PDF]

Ladenburg, Thomas (1989). The Federalist Era. SSEC American History Series. This unit on the Federalist era of U.S. history examines some of the issues that have endured from the earliest days of the nation to the present: free speech, the right to rebel, foreign policy, the balance of federal and state authority, and the relative importance of various constituencies. Student understanding of such issues develops through examination of the issues as faced by President Washington and two of his closest advisors, Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. At some points, the text calls upon students to act as advocates, elsewhere, as critics. In working with the material, students must think through the issues, organize their thoughts, and express those thoughts orally and on paper. Some of the chapter topics are "The New Nation", an introduction to the unit's major issues; "Paying the National Debt"; "Neutrality and the Jay Treaty"; and "Jeffersonians in Office." The document includes a foreward, an introduction, an…

Ellsworth, Jill H.; Grisham, Arthur F. (1975). Educational Theory Goes to Court: Freedom of Speech and Fitness to Teach. Two areas of law are examined in this paper: student free speech and immorality as the basis of teacher dismissal. These areas are discussed to exemplify an increasing impact of judicial decisions on school practices, and to support the argument that schools of education need to engage in teaching and research about law as it relates to education, including school policies and practices. The first of the two doctrines considered, the Tinker standard of \material and substantial interference with the requirements of appropriate school discipline,\ leads to suggestions of how a decision might be reached that would affect the school's curriculum if educational theory and research were properly applied to legal theories. The second doctrine, the Morrison \fitness to teach\ test, is used to point out the need for certain evidence before just and consistent results can be reached. Discussion of both doctrines suggests ways of increasing the potential for pluralism in curriculum and… [PDF]

Rodrigues, Raymond J. (1974). A Comparison of the Written and Oral English Syntax of Mexican American Bilingual and Anglo American Monolingual Fourth and Ninth Grade Students (Las Vegas, New Mexico). In comparing the written and oral English syntax of Mexican-American bilingual and Anglo-American monolingual students, this study sought to learn specifically whether these two groups of students represent the same speech population in English syntactic use. A total of 70 subjects were randomly selected for the four groups (bilingual and monolingual fourth and ninth graders). Each subject was taped in an interview to acquire a sample of oral language production–free speech–while free writings in class were used for written production. Oral and written samples were divided into T-units, and 20 T-units of each language production were randomly sampled for each student and then analyzed to test for central tendency, dispersion, and skewness. Results showed that the bilingual and monolingual students do represent the same language population in English syntactic usages, except in ninth-grade written average clause length. However, the study raises questions, and the subject warrant's… [PDF]