Thorne, Edward J., Ed. (1972). [Iowa Studies in Rhetoric.]. Iowa Journal of Speech, v3 n1 p1-65 Fall. This special issue opens with an article by Franklyn S. Haiman, \The Fighting Word Doctrine: From Chaplinsky to Brown,\ in which he reviews the problem of the use of \fighting words\ in public situations. He discusses this type of communication as one that borders individual and collective rights, and provides background information on significant Supreme Court decisions in the free speech area. In the second article, \Leadership and Language,\ Marvin D. Jensen contends that present crises in leadership arise from our current language usages which do not contribute to real communication. In the final article, \How Do You Tell the Good Guys From the Bad Guys,\ Ruth Johnston Laws presents an examination of the effects of television on American voter behavior. She examines the changes in campaign planning and strategy because of television, the altered behavior of the candidates in response to the public, and the altered response of the public to the candidates. (Author/RN)… [PDF]

Farbman, Madeline (2005). Order in the Court!. Instructor, v115 n2 p41-42 Sep. This fall teachers will have the infrequent, but valuable opportunity to teach children about the Supreme Court and its confirmation process. The appointment of a new Justice lets students witness the Court's role and how the three branches of government work together. Teachers also report that the Court is a favorite topic because children can see how rulings have affected their daily lives–in cases that deal with segregation, wearing protest armbands to school, immigration, or free speech. Lessons on the Court and the confirmation process should go well beyond memorization of facts. Diana Hess, faculty on the Supreme Court Summer Institute for teachers, says as a general rule, the best ones are those that require kids to process information and make some kind of decision. Role-playing and debates, which require judgment and critical thinking, help students better understand the Court and the confirmation, as well as larger lessons about the judicial process, checks and balances,… [PDF] [Direct]

Knox, Bernard (1991). For and against the "New" Education. Humanities, v12 n4 p30-34 Jul-Aug. Observes that the humanities first came under attack immediately after their development in ancient Athens. Describes the fifth-century Sophists who developed an education designed for democracy. Urges support of the humanities today as a training in free citizenship, speech, and thought. Warns that technology cannot solve the problems facing mankind today because human values cannot be quantified. (DK)…

(1989). Agreement, 1989-1992, between the Board of Community College District No. 524, County of Cook and State of Illinois and the Moraine Valley Faculty Association, a Chapter of the Cook County College Teachers Union. The collective bargaining agreement between the Board of Community College District No. 524, County of Cook and State of Illinois, and the Moraine Valley Faculty Association is presented. This contract, covering the period from July 1, 1989 to June 30, 1992, deals with the following topics: definitions; bargaining agent recognition; non-discrimination; association-board relations; academic freedom and faculty rights with respect to the classroom, course content, textbooks, bulletin boards, free speech, public expression, and academic credit/grades; renewal, termination, or layoff of non-tenured or tenured faculty members; overload and supplemental; evaluation; scheduling and teaching assignments; teaching load and assignments (including provisions related to team teaching, innovative teaching, interns and student teachers); grievance procedures; leaves of absence; professional growth; faculty rights; personnel records for faculty; calendar; savings and severability; hiring and… [PDF]

Warner, Linda Sue (1999). Education and the Law: Implications for American Indian/Alaska Native Students. This chapter provides an overview of federal education case law and legislation. Currently, there is no Supreme Court education case law applicable specifically to American Indian students. Following brief descriptions of categories of jurisdiction and the structure of the federal court system, the overview summarizes Supreme Court case law applicable to all students and examines potential implications for American Indian students, where applicable. Case law in education falls into the following general areas: (1) discipline (corporal punishment, due process); (2) curriculum (protection of freedom of religion, English-as-a-second-language instruction for limited-English speaking students); (3) student and teacher right of free speech; (4) tort law (responsibility and negligence in education, "in loco parentis" issues, extent of school liability); (5) equity (educational discrimination, integrated facilities, equal educational opportunity); (6) special education (rights of… [PDF]

Petronicolos, Loucas (1996). Tinker, Fraser, and Hazelwood: Which Educational Policies Are Truly "Educational"?. Without question, Supreme Court decisions regarding public school student rights have greatly affected school policies. This paper reviews three decisions of the United States Supreme Court that currently classify the public school student's free-speech and expression rights. The cases include "Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District" (1969), "Bethel School District v. Fraser" (1986), and "Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier" (1988). The paper examines the ideas underlying the educational policies illustrated by the three decisions and evaluates whether these policies are compatible with the aims of public education. It is argued that each of the three decisions enunciate fundamentally different notions about the ends and means of public education, which may be a source of controversy over policy decisions at the school level. In formulating school policy, the scope of inquiry needs to include an appraisal of the appropriate roles…

Cloyd, Frances L.; Faber, Charles F. (1983). An Examination of the Constitutionality of Mandating Balanced Treatment of Evolution and Creationism in Public Schools. Legislation, rulings, and arguments for and against public schools giving creationism equal time or consideration with evolution are discussed. In the 1920's fundamentalists began to promote statutes prohibiting the teaching of evolution in public schools. Since that time the creationists have sought to supplant evolution with creationism on the grounds that the teaching of evolution inhibits the free speech and religious practices of the believers of creationism. They have demanded that the study of evolution be reduced or eliminated because it is a religious theory and, in particular, a vital aspect of secular humanism, and, thereby, violates the first amendment. Nothing could be further from the truth. In fact, laws mandating the teaching of creationism violate constitutional rights. It is imperative for the sake of religious freedom in this country that the separation between church and state be maintained. As Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas noted (Zorach v. Clausen,…

Kushner, Blanche; Lufler, Henry S., Jr. (1984). Student Rights and Responsibilities: A Handbook on School Law in Wisconsin. Program Report 84-2. This handbook summarizes current legal doctrine, state statutes, and federal and state regulations regarding the treatment of public school pupils in Wisconsin. It reports on court decisions that are binding in Wisconsin and those from other courts around the country that illustrate how pupil issues have been handled in other jurisdictions. After an introductory overview, chapters 2, 3, and 4 discuss issues that spring from constitutional rights: free speech and expression, religion in the public schools, and search and seizure. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 discuss the ways in which schools can regulate the conduct of students without interfering with constitutional rights. Topics covered are student discipline, school sports and clubs (extracurricular activities), and compulsory attendance. The last three chapters discuss equal educational opportunity and education of handicapped children. Here the focus is on regulations as well as legal decisions, since many issues involving these groups… [PDF]

Burrill, Carol (1985). The Sensitive Period Hypothesis: A Review of Literature Regarding Acquisition of a Native-Like Pronunciation in a Second Language. A review of research was conducted on the possibility of a sensitive period for the acquisition of native-like pronunciation in a second language, as well as on related questions concerning the universality of this phenomenon, age factors, biological versus cultural origins, and developmental psychology. The review showed variation in studies and findings with regard to the age groups considered, nature of the pronunciation tests, and length and type of exposure to the second language. One conclusion drawn is that cerebral lateralization is likely to be irrelevant to mastery of accent-free speech in a second language, while age is a factor. Further research on adult second language acquisition is recommended, including examination of possible post-puberty psychomotor disadvantages, adult unwillingness to take risks, and identification with in- or out-groups through language proficiency. It is inferred that there is no innate psycholinguistic factor operating to prevent learning a…

Friedman, Jane; And Others (1984). Managing the Media Maze: A Resource Guide for Child Care Advocates. This pamphlet aims to help child care agencies and centers mount a campaign to counteract negative media coverage about child care. To plan an approach to the media, it is suggested that the child care organization designate a media person, develop a budget, target the audience, develop a message and vehicle, compile a media book with information about local media, cultivate media contacts, and establish a timetable. Specific skills for working with the media are also discussed; these include creating a media packet for the organization and preparing public service announcements, community calendar announcements, free speech messages, and press releases. Suggestions are also given for getting on radio and television, preparing for interviews and talkshows, getting positive results from encounters with the media, and evaluating the success of efforts to use the media. The conclusion stresses the need to coordinate positive media attention with organization of child advocates to…

Downing, Pamela A. (1977). On \Basic Levels\ and the Categorization of Objects in English Discourse. The factors which influence a speaker's decision to use one categorization for an object as opposed to others that are available are analyzed. The categories that are most used in speech are basic level categories established at the most abstract level at which the category members: (1) share a number of physical and functional attributes, (2) elicit a consistent motor pattern from human interacting with them, and (3) exhibit a similar, easily recognizable shape. Data obtained from free speech samples correlate with that obtained from a controlled linguistic environment experiment and substantiate the hypothesis. When superordinate rather than basic level categorization is used, it is usually due to the need to refer to groups of individuals, the effects of generalization in memory, or the need to refer to objects of poor basic level codability. Where distinct differences cannot be drawn among the superordinate, basic level, and subordinate lexical choices, other classificatory…

Brady, Sheila; And Others (1991). It's Yours: The Bill of Rights. Lessons in the Bill of Rights for Students of English as a Second Language. This curriculum presents lessons and materials designed to teach immigrant students their rights and responsibilities under the U.S. legal system. The lessons employ interactive strategies, and develop higher order thinking skills as they foster English language learning. The curriculum contains eight units: (1) "Roots of Rights: Introduction to the Bill of Rights"; (2) "Free Speech, Assembly, Press: Freedom of Speech; Freedom of Press; Freedom of Assembly; Freedom to Petition Government"; (3) "Freedom to Believe: Freedom of Religion"; (4) "It's about Privacy: Freedom from Unreasonable Search and Seizure"; (5) "Rights of the Accused: Right to a Lawyer; Right to Trial by Jury; Protection Against Cruel and Unusual Punishment"; (6) "Equal Protection Under the Laws: Equal Rights"; (7) "The Bill of Rights and Your Body: Right to Privacy"; and (8) "The Right to Vote: Right to Vote and Participate." The…

Lines, Patricia M. (1983). Curriculum and the Constitution. Issuegram 34. The United States Supreme Court has to date decided four major cases dealing with curricula or the rights of students. The Court (1) declared unconstitutional a law that prohibited instruction in evolutionary theory, (2) upheld the right of students in school to express their views on controversial subjects, (3) extended protection under the free-speech clause to student editors of a university newspaper, and (4) held that a school board must go to trial to show that it had a valid purpose in withdrawing a number of books from its school libraries. Two decisions accommodated conscience-based objections by students: the Court held that a compulsory school attendance law should not apply to Amish children beyond the eighth grade and exempted children from flag salute requirements. Lower court decisions in 1982 upheld the prohibition of one school play, stated that another play was improperly prohibited, ruled against the banning of two books and one film, made two decisions against… [PDF]

Gregory, Gwendolyn H. (1981). Recent U.S. Court Decisions Affecting Education. In 1981 the federal courts decided hundreds of cases involving schools relating to civil rights statutes, the First Amendment, the Fourth Amendment, and the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Lawsuits concerning the handicapped involved such issues as the costs of determining what is equal opportunity in education, full-time interpreters for deaf children, catheterization as a related service, and the extended school year. Civil rights cases involved the application of Title IX to employment and to collegiate athletics; Title VII and the issue of equal pay for equal work among female and male prison guards; and the application of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act to school personnel. The use of intelligence tests for the placement of black students was found to be a violation of the equal protection clause. Other cases involved illigal aliens; the constitutionality of the one-house Congressional veto; free speech and censorship of school library books; the…

(1968). Unit 1103: The Nature and Evaluation of Argument. This 11th-grade unit on language of discourse is designed to help students gain the ability to evaluate argument, to construct logical and reasonable discourse, and to recognize ethical standards of free speech and inquiry. Stephen Toulmin's model of "evidence-warrant-claim" is used as a basic pattern for both the evaluation and construction of argument. The nature of proof (motivational, authoritative, and substantive) is then reviewed with a particular focus on (1) lines of argument–e.g., causality, generalization, and analogy, (2) varieties of proof–e.g., fact and opinion, and (3) tests for logical adequacy–e.g., clarity, internal and external consistency, and verifiability. Finally, the ethics of argument, or the ends and means of persuasion, are determined. Readings from such sources as Walter Lippman, David Lloyd George, and Mark Twain are analyzed, and students are asked to develop speeches and essays using the various approaches they have learned. Included are… [PDF]

Deane, Sharon Louise (1974). The Black Armbands Case: A Delicate Balance. The Supreme Court broadened freedom of expression for high school and college students in its landmark decision of 1969, "Tinker vs Des Moines Independent School District.""Tinker" is significant in that it affirmed the Court's protection of free speech unless such expression is likely to produce "clear and present danger" of serious harm, and the "material and substantial interference" standard established in "Tinker" helped clarify which student expressions are protected under the First Amendment. "Papish vs University of Missouri Curators" is the most recent Supreme Court case (1973) to cite "Tinker," but lesser courts have adopted the "Tinker" rationale in such cases as "Zucker vs Panitz,""Scoville vs Board of Education," and "Lee vs Board of Regents of State Colleges." Total clarity concerning the principles established in "Tinker" has not been reached, but it… [PDF]

O'Neil, Robert M. (2004). Walking the Talk on Campus Speech. Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges, Trusteeship v12 n2 Mar-Apr. A public university faced with intolerant student speech now risks being damned if it acts, but equally damned if it fails to act. To a greater degree than at any time in recent memory, the actions and policies of higher education institutions concerning student speech not only are being scrutinized, but they also are becoming the subject of legal challenge with potentially grave consequences. That's why college and university trustees need to appreciate changes in the legal landscape and prepare for review and possible recasting of traditional approaches to speech issues. This article examines speech issues in terms of offended minorities, free-speech zones, new media, and the post-9/11 era. These issues present new challenges to trustees and administrators, especially those who were faculty members or administrators back in the 1960s and thought they had seen it all. What we are now coming to appreciate in the new millennium is not only that many important issues never were… [Direct]

McGill, Michael J.; Van Houweling, Douglas E. (1993). The Evolving National Information Network: Background and Challenges. A Report of the Technology Assessment Advisory Committee to the Commission on Preservation and Access. The rapidly developing and changing networking and telecommunications environment now being implemented in the United States and across the globe is explored. The creation of a flexible and inexpensive digital network allowing instantaneous access by any individual to information of any type is now within our grasp. A primer on the technology underlying the current network environment is offered, and the status of higher education and research networking environments is described. Some of the lessons learned to date are highlighted, and the impacts of this technology on the issues of knowledge preservation and access are considered. Scenarios of possible futures using the interlocking technologies of communications, processing power, and storage are provided. Prospects and challenges in the further development of the network are also reviewed. Policy issues that cannot be ignored are those of: (1) access; (2) appropriate use; (3) funding; (4) governance; (5) security; and (6)…

Peach, Larry E.; Reddick, Thomas L. (1987). Legal Issues Affecting Faculty and Administration in Higher Education. Legal aspects of college teaching and administration are discussed. The faculty and college are liable by tort law for students in three ways: intentional acts or interference, strict liability, and negligence. Intentional acts include improperly installed or dangerous equipment, while strict liability cases usually occur where fault is not specifically identifiable, such as when students hurt themselves on ice when there was no adequate protection barriers and warnings. Negligence may occur when there are student injuries without proper supervision of students by faculty members. Another type of negligence action is educational malpractice (i.e., teachers and administrators did not carry out their responsibilities to students and students did not learn what they should have). Specific concerns include proper training of graduate assistants for their responsibilities, management by faculty of health emergencies while exerting caution in administering first aid, and keeping accident… [PDF]

Wonacott, Michael E. (2001). Ethics: The Role of Adult and Vocational Education. Trends and Issues Alert No. 24. Ethics and social responsibility are the subject of both curriculum materials and research in adult and vocational education. State academic standards and curriculum frameworks address citizenship and personal and social responsibility. Ethical and legal issues for specific occupations are addressed in curricula issued by states, professional associations, and educational institutions. Research studies examine the ethical inclinations and decision making of secondary and postsecondary students, as well as the effects of ethics instruction. Methods and resources used in ethics instruction include case studies, heroes as a model for ethical behavior, and a combination of critical thinking and ethics instruction. Service learning projects are recommended for developing social responsibility. Web sites offer resources for ethics instruction. The adult and vocational education literature reflect ethical issues for educators. A long list of ethical issues arises in the use of technology… [PDF]

Essex, Nathan L. (2006). Student Distribution of Religious Fliers in Public Schools: Ten Ways to Invite a Lawsuit. Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, v79 n3 p138-143 Jan-Feb. This article address the legal and constitutional issues surrounding how far school leaders can go in restricting distribution of materials that are viewed as religious in nature. Does restricting the student's right to distribute the flyer amount to a suppression of free speech based on content? Does the principal's action constitute unlawful viewpoint discrimination? Will allowing the student to distribute religious fliers in school suggest that the school endorses religion? Does the type of forum established by the school affect distribution of religious literature by students? It is noted that, although public school students do not possess the same level of First Amendment protection that adults enjoy, their constitutional rights are not lost when they enter school. Section headings in this article are: (1) Forum Analysis and the Judiciary; (2) Viewpoint Discrimination, (3) Religion and First Amendment Rights; (4) First Amendment Rights Restrictions; (5) Equal Access Act; (6)… [Direct]

Hartnett, Stephen John (2011). Google and the "Twisted Cyber Spy" Affair: US-Chinese Communication in an Age of Globalization. Quarterly Journal of Speech, v97 n4 p411-434. The "twisted cyber spy" affair began in 2010, when Google was attacked by Chinese cyber-warriors charged with stealing Google's intellectual property, planting viruses in its computers, and hacking the accounts of Chinese human rights activists. In the ensuing international embroglio, the US mainstream press, corporate leaders, and White House deployed what I call the rhetoric of belligerent humanitarianism to try to shame the Chinese while making a case for global free markets, unfettered speech, and emerging democracy. That rhetorical strategy carries heavy baggage, however, as it tends to insult the international community, exalt neo-liberal capitalism, sound paternalistic, and feel missionary. Belligerent humanitarianism sounds prudent, however, when compared to the rhetorical strategy of the US military-industrial complex, which marshals the rhetoric of warhawk hysteria to escalate threats into crises and political questions into armed inevitabilities. To counter these… [Direct]

Lindenberger, Michael (2006). Questions of Conduct. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, v23 n21 p36-37 Nov. When Jason Johnson, a student at the University of the Cumberlands in the eastern Kentucky hills, posted comments about his new boyfriend on his Myspace.com Web page, he unintentionally sparked a controversy that quickly embroiled the college, the president of the state senate, and Kentucky Governor Ernie Fletcher. The Baptist-affiliated college, whose student handbook prohibits homosexual relationships, expelled Johnson, a 20-year-old theater arts major. Gay-rights organizations and some lawmakers responded by demanding that Governor Fletcher veto $11 million in state funds for a new pharmacy program at the college. Others, including the president of the state senate, defended the school's right to set its own rules for student behavior, pointing out that Johnson knew the rules before he enrolled. Similarly, many legal experts say private colleges have the right to exclude students who fail to abide by the college's moral codes. But others say the Johnson drama underscores the… [Direct]

Palmer, Stuart (1998). The Universities Today. Scholarship, Self-Interest, and Politics for Concerned Citizens, Students, Parents, Alumni, Officials, Educational Administrators, Academicians. This book examines issues facing higher education today, especially the need to reverse the frequently adversarial relationship between the academy and the larger society. Chapter 1 addresses common criticisms of the university. Chapter 2 considers issues of freedom and order, the role of trustees, alumni, and university administration and organization. Chapter 3 is about faculty work, including the professorial role, tenure and promotion, faculty compensation, teaching, research, and accountability. Chapter 4 discusses the dilemma of faculty politics, including such issues as female/minority faculty, free speech, racism, and multicultural education. Chapter 5 considers the politics of violence and harassment, and analyzes several specific cases. Chapter 6 discusses student-related issues, including gender differences in learning, choosing an undergraduate college, grade inflation, athletics, graduation, and some student-related university dilemmas. Student learning and politics,…

Belsches-Simmons, Grace (1983). Regulation of Postsecondary Institutions: Model Legislation. Issuegram 22. The Education Commission for the States' model state legislation for approval of postsecondary institutions and authorization to grant degrees is discussed with regard to three Supreme Court cases on academic freedom, as well as several recent state court cases on the regulation of teaching in private postsecondary institutions. Constitutional issues raised by the decision to regulate postsecondary institutions include the free speech protections of the first amendment, which includes teaching, and the freedom of religion at church related colleges. In addition, the due process requirements of the fourteenth amendment raise additional issues, including certain liberty interests from state regulatory infringement. It is suggested that states adopting a licensing requirement that focuses on teaching in postsecondary institutions should reexamine their laws in the light of general Supreme Court cases on academic freedom and the recent lower court decision in New Jersey and North… [PDF]

Graham, Janet G. (1990). Changing Fossilized Speech: What Does It Take?. At an employer's request, a course was developed to improve the speech skills, and remediate fossilized speech, of six Asian engineers and scientists. All had spoken English for many years, and averaged 10 years of residence in the United States. These students were recorded reading a dialogue as well as in free speech. A needs assessment was performed by analyzing the recordings and by tests of grammar and listening comprehension. Based on the results, instruction focused on developing more comprehensible speech, using existing knowledge of vocabulary and structure. Emphasis was placed on suprasegmentals and certain problematic phonemes, with some work on grammatical errors. Techniques were used to stimulate student motivation to improve speech. Instruction consisted of teacher explanations and demonstrations, structured oral practice, communicative activities, and laboratory and home work with language tapes. At the end of the course, three students clearly demonstrated… [PDF]

Lombardi, John (1969). Student Activism in Junior Colleges: An Administrator's Views. Beginning with an overview, the author traces the history of activism from the Berkeley Free Speech Movement to the present, noting that, while junior college activists are influenced by senior institutions, their activities are typically more moderate. Defining several activist groups and their special interests, he then discusses the new left (primarily the Students for a Democratic Society), the rightists, black students, Mexican-American students, and the elected student officers involved in the National Student Association. As for student government, he notes it has been bypassed by the activists, and efforts to participate in institutional governance are largely unsuccessful. Moving to student rights, he reviews the statements on this topic by the American Association of University Professors, the American Council on Education, and the organizations preparing the comprehensive "Joint Statement on Rights and Freedoms of Students." The last topics are community… [PDF]

Shelton, Michael W. (1994). PC, No–An Examination of the Conservative Opposition to Political Correctness. An objective assessment of the politically correct movement on college campuses casts much doubt on the positions advanced by conservative critics in the popular media. Through "Time,""Newsweek,""The New Republic,""Nightline," and other media, conservative critics, backed by well-established right-wing organizations, have painted a portrait of the issue of political correctness as being an organized movement that threatens free speech. Drawing on a body of "outrageous" cases, they have viewed political correctness and multiculturalism as a conspiracy threatening the very foundation of American society. However, more sensible evaluations of political correctness on college campuses show that it does not hold a position of unchallenged authority. In fact, it seems unlikely that there is much, if any, organized effort to program students with politically correct ideas. What there is, to quote one student, is an attempt to recognize… [PDF]

Ingelhart, Louis E. (1986). Press Law and Press Freedom for High School Publications: Court Cases and Related Decisions Discussing Free Expression Guarantees and Limitations for High School Students and Journalists. Contributions to the Study of Mass Media and Communications, Number 6. According to this reference manual, the nation's courts offer public high school journalists the same constitutional protection for expression, free speech, and free press as adults. Part 1 traces the development of the First and Fourth Amendments and explains how these provisions apply to high school publications. Part 2 examines expression that can be regulated by public schools, including disruption of the school program; the time, place, and manner of distribution; and libel and obscenity. Courts generally approve stronger restrictions and regulations pertaining to high school publications than are permissible for adult or college student publications. Courts allow public school officials to request preliminary copies of high school publications and can forbid distribution of all publications posing a serious threat of danger or disruption or containing libelous or obscene material. The obscenity allowance has to do with teenagers' minority status. Part 3 covers other legal…

Schwartz, Arthur M. (1986). Coping with Classroom Bigotry: Politics and Morality of Canada's Keegstra Affair. In December 1982, James Keegstra was dismissed from his position as high school social studies teacher in a small Canadian town. Two and one-half years later Keegstra was convicted on the rarely heard criminal charge of willful promotion of hatred towards an identifiable group (Jews) through his classroom teaching. Courtroom testimony made it clear that two successive principals of the school and the former superintendent of the school district had sheltered Keegstra by ignoring or failing to act on parental complaints. The two principals appeared as defense witnesses on behalf of Keegstra who argued that the approved curriculum was biased and that the school was interfering with his right of free speech. The principals' testimony raises concern about the selection and training of school administration and the functions and dysfunctions of ignorance, morality, and short-term expedience in the management of public education. The positivist technicism widespread in graduate…